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                         A discourse on

                         PATICCASAMUPPADA

                               OR

               The Doctrine of Dependent Origination

                               by

                   The Venerable Mahasi Sayadaw

                               of

                             Burma

                  Translated by U Aye Maung

          Published by:

          U Min Swe
          Buddhasasana Nuggaha Organization
          Rangoon, Burma.

          (Prepared at BuddhaNet for free distribution)

                   **          **          **

                       CONTENTS

          1.    Importance Of The Doctrine
          2.    Reflection Of The Bodhisatta
          3.    Anuloma Reasoning
          4.    Beyond Reasoning And Speculation
          5.    Dhamma Is Only For The Wise
          6.    Difficulty Of Understanding
          7.    What Is Avijja (Ignorance)?
          8.    Ignorance Of The Origin Of Dukkha
          9.    Ignorance Of The Third And Fourth Noble Truths
          10.   Right View, Etc.
          11.   Avijja Leads To Sankhara
          12.   Unwholesome Kammas
          13.   Rejection Of Good Kamma Means Bad Kamma
          14.   Ignorance And Illusion
          15.   Sankhara Causes Vinnana
          16.   How Sankhara Leads To New Vinnana
          17.   Sassata And Uccheda
          18.   Death-Bed Visions
          19.   The Story Of Mahadhammika Upasaka
          20.   Vinnana and Nama-Rupa
          21.   Upapata Rebirth
          22.   Sansedaja Beings
          23.   Vithi-Cittas
          24.   Manodvara Vithi
          25.   Follow-Up Vithi
          26.   From Vinnana Arises Nama-Rupa
          21.   The Story Of Cakkhupala Thera
          28.   The Thera's Verdict
          29.   Pure Thought And Happiness
          30.   Nama-Rupa And Salayatana
          31.   Rupa And Ayatana
          32.   Summary
          33.   The Buddha's Emphasis On Practice
          34.   The Abstruseness Of The Doctrine
          35.   Relation Between Manodvara And Vinnana, Etc.
          36.   Recapitulation
          37.   Vedana Leads To Tanha
          38.   Six Kinds Of Tanha
          39.   Tanha And Samsara
          40.   Extinction Of Craving
          41.   The Story Of Mahatissa Thera
          42.   Story Of A Parrot
          43.   Contemplation And Extinction
          44.   Cutting Off At The Foundation
          45.   Kilesa And Unmindfulness
          46.   Thoughts And Tactile Impressions
          47.   Three Kinds Of Craving (Tanha)
          48.   Tanha Causes Upadana
          49.   Bases Of Sensual Pleasure
          50.   Ditthupadana (Bigotry)
          51.   Right Views
          52.   Seeing The World Beyond
          53.   Parami And Kamma
          54.   Silabbatupadana (Clinging To False Practices)
          55.   The Story Of Korakhatiya
          56.   Other Silabbata Practices
          57.   Attavadupadana (Clinging To Belief In Soul)
          58.   Clinging Leads To Becoming
          59.   Kammabhava
          60.   Upapattibhava
          61.   Story Of Mendaka
          62.   Upadana And Kammabhava
          63.   Puppharatta Jataka
          64.   Right And Wrong Good Kamma
          65.   Kamma And Rebirth
          66.   Four Kinds Of Kamma
          67.   Story Of Ajatasattu
          68.   Habitual And Death-Bed Kammas
          69.   Birth And Suffering
          70.   Grief And Lamentation
          71.   Story Of Subrahma Deva
          72.   Kamupadana Means All Kinds Of Excessive Craving
          73.   Attachment To Belief As The Cause Of Rebirth
          74.   Superstition And Evil Rebirth
          75.   Fanaticism Or Religious Upadana
          76.   Silabbatupadana - Attachment To Wrong Practices
          77.   Attavadupadana - Attachment to Ego-Belief
          78.   Story of Ugga
          79.   Vipassana Practice and Upadana
          80.   Life-Cycle and Three Time Dimensions
          81.   Five Causes in the Past
          82.   Distinction between Sankhara and Kammabhava
          83.   Present Effect Due to Past Cause
          84.   Knowledge for Vipassana Practice
          85.   Removing the Present Causes
          86.   Arahat's Outlook On Life
          87.   Not Annihilation But Extinction Of Suffering
          88.   Story Of Yamaka
          89.   Bhikkhuni Vajira On The Nature Of Khandhas
          90.   Four Layers, Three Links And Twenty Factors
          91.   Three Cycles
          92.   Four Aspects Of Paticcasamuppada
          93.   The False View Of Sati
          94.   Distinctive Character Of Each Phenomenon
          95.   Absence Of Effort (Avyapara)
          96.   Relevancy Of Cause To Effect
          97.   Conclusion
          98.   Cutting Off The Cycle Of Defilements
          99.   Arahan And The Attributes Of The Buddha
          100.  Story Of Baka Brahma
          101.  Sammasambuddha
          102.  The Fame Of The Buddha
          103.  The Four Noble Truths In Brief
          104.  Sammasambuddha And Buddhahood
          105.  Summary

                   **          **          **

          Importance Of The Doctrine

          The doctrine of Paticcasamuppada or Dependent
          Origination is very important in Buddhism. The
          bodhisatta began with dependent origination when he
          reflected deeply on the nature of existence and attained
          Enlightenment. He first pondered old age and death as
          did every other bodhisatta when he was about to become
          the Buddha in his last existence. For it was only after
          seeing the old, the sick and the dead that the
          bodhisatta saw the ascetic (//samana//) and renounced
          the world in search of the ageless and the deathless
          Dhamma. He had seen the evils of life in old age,
          sickness and death.

          Every living being wants to avoid these evils of life
          but there is no end to these evils which follow him in
          one existence after another. In view of this endless
          process of life, all living beings appear to be in
          bondage and subject to suffering. Life is in fact an
          infinite process of births and deaths. The fate of fowls
          and ducks is terrible indeed. Some are eaten up while
          still in the eggs. If they emerge from the eggs they do
          not live long but are killed when they grow up a little.
          They are born only to be killed for human consumption.
          If the fate of a living being is thus to be repeatedly
          killed it is gloomy and frightful indeed.

          But the fowls and ducks appear to be well content with
          their lot in life. They apparently enjoy life, quacking,
          crowing, eating and fighting with one another. They may
          think that they have a lot of time to live although in
          fact they have little time to be happy, their life being
          a matter of days or months, with each of them coming
          into existence and then dying after a short time.

          The span of human life, too, is not very long for the
          man in his fifties or sixties the past seems in
          retrospect as recent as yesterday. Sixty or seventy
          years on earth is a day in the life of a deva which is,
          however, very short in the eyes of a Brahma who may live
          as long as the duration of the worlds (//kappa//). But
          even the Brahma who outlives hundreds of worlds is
          insignificant and his life is short in the context of
          samsaric eternity. Devas and Brahmas, too, have to age
          and die eventually. Although they are not subject to
          sickness and marked dotage, age tells on them invisibly
          in due course of time. So every living being has to face
          old age and death and nobody can escape from these evils
          of life.

          Reflection Of The Bodhisatta

          Reflecting on the origin of old age, the bodhisatta
          traced back the chain of dependent origination from the
          end to the beginning. Old age and death have their
          origin in rebirth which in turn is due to //kammabhava//
          (condition or kamma for renewed existence). Kammabhava
          stems from grasping or attachment (upadana) which is
          caused by craving (tanha). Craving arises from feeling
          (vedana) which is produced by sense-bases (ayatana) such
          as eye, visual form, etc. Sense-bases are the product of
          nama-rupa (consciousness and corporeality) which results
          from //vinnana// (consciousness) which is again caused
          by //nama-rupa//.

          The full Pali texts about Paticcasamuppada attribute
          vinnana to sankhara (kamma-formations) and sankhara to
          avijja (ignorance). But the bodhisatta's reflection is
          confined to the interdependence of //nama-rupa// and
          vinnana in the present life. In other words, he
          reflected on the correlation between vinnana and
          nama-rupa, leaving out of account the former's relation
          to past existence. We may assume, therefore, that for
          the yogis, reflection on the present life will suffice
          to ensure the successful practice of vipassana.

          Anuloma Reasoning

          The bodhisatta reasoned about the correlation between
          vinnana and nama-rupa thus: This vinnana has no cause
          other than nama-rupa. From nama-rupa there results
          vinnana; from vinnana there arises nama-rupa. Hence,
          from the correlation between vinnana and nama-rupa there
          arises birth, old age and death; there may be successive
          births or successive deaths.

          Moreover vinnana causes nama-rupa; nama-rupa causes
          sense-bases (ayatana). From sense-bases there arises
          contact; contact leads to feeling; feeling gives rise to
          craving; craving to grasping; and grasping results in
          rebirth which in turn leads to old age, death, anxiety,
          grief and other kinds of mental and physical sufferings.

          Then the bodhisatta reflected on dependent origination
          negatively. If there were no vinnana there could be no
          nama-rupa; if no nama-rupa, then no ayatana and so on.
          The negation of the first link in the chain of causation
          leads to the extinction of suffering that has beset us

          ceaselessly in the infinite series of samsaric
          existences. After this reflection on dependent
          origination in its positive and negative aspects, the
          bodhisatta contemplated the nature of the aggregates of
          grasping. Then he attained the successive insights and
          fruitions (magga-phala) on the Ariyan holy path and
          finally became the all-Enlightened Buddha. Every
          bodhisatta attained supreme Enlightenment after such
          contemplation. They did not learn what and how to
          contemplate from others but owing to cumulative
          potential (parami) that they had acquired through
          innumerable lifetimes, they contemplated as mentioned
          before and attained Enlightenment.

          Beyond Reasoning And Speculation

          Then when it was time to preach, the Buddha thought
          thus: This dhamma which I know is very profound. It is
          hard to understand; it is so sublime and so conducive to
          inner peace. It is not accessible to intellect and logic
          (atakkavacaro). It is subtle and it is to be realized
          only by the wise.

          All over the world, philosophers have racked their
          brains about freedom from old age, sickness and death.
          But freedom from these evils means Nibbana and Nibbana
          is beyond the reach of reason and intellect. It is to be
          realized only through the practice of the middle way and
          vipassana. Most philosophers rely on intellect and
          logic, and there are various doctrines which they have
          conceived for the welfare of all living beings. But
          these doctrines are based on speculations that do not
          help anyone to attain vipassana insight, let alone the
          supreme goal of Nibbana. Even the lowest stage of
          vipassana insight, viz., insight into the distinction
          between nama and rupa does not admit any intellectual
          approach. The insight dawns on the yogi only when, with
          the development of concentration, and in accordance with
          Satipatthana method he watches the nama-rupa process and
          distinguishes between consciousness and corporeality,
          e.g. the desire to bend the hand and bent hand, the ear
          and the sound on the one hand and the consciousness of
          hearing on the other and so forth. Such knowledge is not
          vague and speculative; it is vivid and empirical.

          It is said on the authority of scriptures that
          nama-rupas are in a constant flux and that we should
          watch their arising and passing away. But for the
          beginner this is easier said than done. The beginner has
          to exert strenuous effort to overcome hindrances
          (nivarana). Even freedom from nivarana helps him only to
          distinguish between nama and rupa. It does not ensure
          insight into their arising and passing away. This
          insight is attained only after concentration has been
          developed and perception has become keen with the
          practice of mindfulness. Constant mindfulness of arising
          and vanishing leads to insight into anicca, dukkha and
          anatta of all phenomena. But as merely the beginning of
          lower vipassana, this insight is a far cry from the path
          and its fruition. Hence the description of the dhamma as
          something beyond logic and speculation.

          Dhamma Is Only For The Wise

          The dhamma is subtle (nipuno); it is to be realized only
          by the wise (panditavedaniyo). Here the wise means only
          those who have wisdom (panna) relating to vipassana and
          the path and its goal. The dhamma has nothing to do with
          the secular knowledge //per se// possessed by world
          philosophers, religious founders, writers or great
          scientists who can split atoms. But it can be realized
          by any one irrespective of sex, age or education; anyone
          who contemplates nama-rupa at the moment of their
          arising, passes through vipassana insights progressively
          and attains the Ariyan path and its goal.

          Taking stock of the nature of all living beings, the
          Buddha found that most of them were mired in sensual
          pleasure. There were of course a few exceptions like the
          five companions of Siddhattha in the forest retreat or
          the two brahmins who were later to become the two chief
          disciples of the Buddha. But the majority of mankind
          regard the enjoyment of pleasure as the summum bonum of
          life. They are like children who delight in playing with
          their toys the whole day. The child's toys and games
          make no sense to adults but grown-up people too derive
          pleasure from the toys of the sensual world, that is,
          from the company of their children and grand-children.
          Such sensual pleasure has no appeal for Buddhas and
          Arahats. It is highly esteemed by ordinary men and devas
          because they have no sense of higher values such as
          jhana, vipassana and Nibbana.

          A person who is thus fond of sensual pleasure may be
          likened to a peasant living in out-of-the-way rural
          areas. To the urbanites those places are wholly devoid
          of the amenities of life, what with poor food, poor
          clothes, dirty dwellings, muddy footpaths and so forth.
          But the villagers are happy and they never think of
          leaving their native place. Likewise, common people and
          devas delight in their sensual objects. Whatever the
          teaching of the Buddha and the Arahats, they love
          pleasure and spend all their time indulging in it. They
          feel ill at ease in the absence of sensual objects. They
          are so much pleased with their families, attendants and
          possessions that they cannot think of anything higher
          than sensual pleasure. Because of their deep rooted love
          of pleasure, it is hard for them to understand or
          appreciate the subtle, profound Paticcasamuppada and
          Nibbana.

          Difficulty Of Understanding

          The Buddha-dhamma makes little appeal to the masses
          since it is diametrically opposed to their sensual
          desire. People do not like even an ordinary sermon, let
          alone a discourse on Nibbana, if it has no sensual
          touch. They do not seem interested in our teaching and
          no wonder, since it is devoid of melodious recitation,
          sentimental stories, hilarious jokes and other
          attractions. It is acceptable only to those who have
          practised //vipassana// or who seek the dhamma on which
          they can rely for methods of meditation and extinction
          of defilements.

          But it is a mistake to deprecate, as some do, the
          sermons containing stories, jokes, etc., as sutta
          sermons. Suttas differ basically from popular sermons in
          that they are profound, as witness Anattalakkhana sutta,
          Satipatthana sutta and so forth. The doctrine of
          Dependent Origination too belongs to Sutta Pitaka. It is
          to be labelled Abhidhamma only because it is preached in
          the fashion of Abhidhamma Pitaka.

          Since our teaching is unadulterated dhamma, some people
          confuse it with Abhidhamma and cannot follow it, much
          less grasp the Path and Nibbana which it emphasizes.
          Paticcasamuppada is hard to understand because it
          concerns the correlations between causes and effects.
          There is no ego entity that exists independently of the
          law of causation. It was hard to accept this fact before
          the Buddha proclaimed the dhamma.

          The commentaries also point out the abstruse character
          of the doctrine. According to them there are four
          dhammas which defy understanding, viz., the four noble
          truths, the nature of a living being, the nature of
          rebirth and dependent origination.

          It is hard to understand and accept the truth of
          suffering, the truth about its cause, the truth about
          its cessation and the truth about the way to its
          extinction. It is hard to appreciate these truths, still
          harder to teach them to other people.

          Secondly, it is hard to understand that a living being
          is a nama-rupa process without any separate self, that
          the nama-rupa complex is subject to the law of kamma
          that determines a man's future life according to his
          good or bad deeds.

          In the third place, it is hard to see how rebirth takes
          place as a result of defilement and kamma without the
          transfer of nama-rupa from a previous life.

          Lastly, it is equally hard to understand
          Paticcasamuppada. It involves the above three abstruse
          dhammas. Its negative aspect concerns the first two
          noble truths as well as the nature of a living being and
          rebirth while its positive aspect involves the other two
          truths. Hence, it is most difficult to grasp or teach
          the doctrine. It may be easy to explain it to one who
          has attained the path and Nibbana or one who has studied
          the Pitaka but it will mean little to one who has
          neither the illumination nor scriptural knowledge.

          The writer of the commentary on the doctrine was
          qualified to explain it because he might have attained
          the lower stages of the path or he might have a thorough
          knowledge of the Pitaka. He refers to its difficulty
          probably in order that its exposition might be seriously
          studied by posterity. He likens the difficulty to the
          plight of a man who has jumped into the sea and cannot
          get to the bottom. He admits that he has written the
          exegesis on the basis of the Pitaka and the old
          commentaries handed down by oral tradition. The same may
          be said of our teaching. Since it is hard to explain the
          doctrine, the yogi should pay special attention to it.
          If he follows the teaching superficially, he will
          understand nothing and without a fair knowledge of the
          doctrine, he is bound to suffer in the wilderness of
          samsaric existence.

          The substance of the Paticcasamuppada teaching is as
          follows.

          From ignorance there arises sankhara (effort or
          kamma-formation). From kamma-formation there arises
          consciousness of the new existence. Consciousness gives
          rise to psycho-physical phenomena or nama-rupa.
          Nama-rupa leads to ayatana (six bases). From ayatana
          arises the phassa (impression). Phassa causes feeling;
          feeling leads to craving. From craving there results
          clinging (upadana). Because of clinging there is the
          process of becoming (kamma-bhava), from the process of
          becoming there arises rebirth (jati) and rebirth leads
          to old age, death, sorrow, grief and lamentation. Thus
          arises the whole mass of suffering.

          What is Avijja (Ignorance)?

          According to the Buddha, avijja is ignorance of the four
          Noble Truths, viz., the truths about suffering, its
          cause, its cessation and the way to its cessation. In a
          positive sense avijja implies misconception or illusion.
          It makes us mistake what is false and illusory for truth
          and reality. It leads us astray and so it is labelled
          //miccha-patipatti-avijja//.

          Avijja, therefore, differs from ordinary ignorance.
          Ignorance of the name of a man or a village does not
          necessarily mean misinformation whereas the avijja of
          Paticcasamuppada means something more than ignorance. It
          is misleading like the ignorance of a man who has lost
          all sense of direction and who, therefore, thinks that
          the east is west or that the north is south. The man who
          does not know the truth of suffering has an optimistic
          view of life that is full of dukkha (pain and evil).

          It is a mistake to seek the truth of dukkha in the book
          for it is to be found in one's own body. Seeing,
          hearing, in short, all nama-rupa arising from the six
          senses are dukkha. For this phenomenal existence is
          impermanent, undesirable and unpleasant. It may end at
          any time and so all is pain and suffering. But this
          dukkha is not realized by living beings who look upon
          their existence as blissful and good.

          So they seek pleasant sense-objects, good sights, good
          sounds, good food, etc. Their effort to secure what they
          believe to be the good things of life is due to their
          illusion (avijja) about their existence. Avijja is here
          like the green eye-glass that makes a horse eat the dry
          grass which it mistakes for green grass. Living beings
          are mired in sensual pleasure because they see every
          thing through rose-coloured glasses. They harbour
          illusions about the nature of sense-objects and
          nama-rupa.

          A blind man may be easily deceived by another man who
          offers him a worthless longyi, saying that it is an
          expensive, high quality longyi. The blind man will
          believe him and he will like the longyi very much. He
          will be disillusioned only when he recovers his sight
          and then he will throw it away at once. Likewise, as a
          victim of avijja, a man enjoys life, being blind to its
          anicca, dukkha and anatta. He becomes disenchanted when
          introspection of nama-rupa makes him aware of the
          unwholesome nature of his existence.

          Introspection of nama-rupa or vipassana contemplation
          has nothing to do with bookish knowledge. It means
          thorough watching and ceaseless contemplation of all
          psycho-physical phenomena that comprise both the
          sense-objects and the corresponding consciousness. The
          practice leads to full awareness of their nature. As
          concentration develops, the yogi realizes their arising
          and instant vanishing, thereby gaining an insight into
          their anicca, dukkha and anatta.

          Avijja makes us blind to reality because we are
          unmindful. Unmindfulness give rise to the illusion of
          man, woman, hand, leg, etc., in the conventional sense
          of the terms. We do not know that seeing, for instance,
          is merely the nama-rupa or psycho-physical process, that
          the phenomenon arises and vanishes, that it is
          impermanent, unsatisfactory and unsubstantial.

          Some people who never contemplate die without knowing
          anything about nama-rupa. The real nature of nama-rupa
          process is realized by the mindful person. But the
          insight does not occur in the beginning when
          concentration is not yet developed. Illusion or the
          natural way of consciousness precedes contemplation and
          so the beginner does not gain a clear insight into the
          nature of nama-rupa. It is only through steadfast
          practice that concentration and perception develop and
          lead to insight-knowledge.

          If, for example, while practising mindfulness, the yogi
          feels itchy, he is barely aware of being itchy. He does
          not think of the hand, the leg, or any other part of the
          body that is itchy nor does the idea of self as the
          subject of itchiness, "I feel itchy" occur to him. There
          arises only the continuous sensation of itchiness. The
          sensation does not remain permanent but passes away as
          he notes it. The watching consciousness promptly notes
          every psycho-physical phenomenon, leaving no room for
          the illusion of hand, leg and so on.

          Illusion dominates the unmindful person and makes him
          blind to the unsatisfactory nature (dukkha) of all
          sense-objects. It replaces dukkha with sukha. Indeed
          avijja means both ignorance of what is real and
          mis-conception that distorts reality.

          Because he does not know the truth of dukkha, man seeks
          pleasant sense-objects. Thus ignorance leads to effort
          and activity (sankhara). According to the scriptures,
          because of avijja there arises sankhara but, there are
          two links, viz., tanha and upadana between them.
          Ignorance gives rise to craving (tanha) which later on
          develops into attachment (upadana). Craving and
          attachment stem from the desire for pleasure and are
          explicitly mentioned in the middle part of the doctrine
          of Paticcasamuppada. When the past is fully described,
          reference is made to avijja, tanha, upadana, kamma and
          sankhara.

          Ignorance Of The Origin Of Dukkha

          People do not know that craving is the origin (samudaya)
          of suffering. On the contrary they believe that it is
          attachment that makes them happy, that without
          attachment life would be dreary. So they ceaselessly
          seek pleasant sense-objects, food, clothing, companions
          and so forth. In the absence of these objects of
          attachment they usually feel ill at ease and find life
          monotonous.

          For common people life without attachment would be
          indeed wholly devoid of pleasure. It is tanha that hides
          the unpleasantness of life and makes it pleasant. But
          for the Arahat who has done away with tanha, it is
          impossible to enjoy life. He is always bent on Nibbana,
          the cessation of conditioned suffering.

          Tanha cannot exert much pressure even on the yogis
          (meditators) when they become absorbed in the practice
          of vipassana. So some yogis do not enjoy life as much as
          they did before. On their return from meditation retreat
          they get bored at home and feel ill at ease in the
          company of their families. To other people the yogi may
          appear to be conceited but in fact his behaviour is a
          sign of loss of interest in the workaday world. But if
          he cannot as yet overcome the sensual desire, his
          boredom is temporary and he usually gets re-adjusted to
          his home life in due course. His family need not worry
          over his mood or behaviour for it is not easy for a man
          to become thoroughly sick of his home life. So the yogi
          should examine himself and see how much he is really
          disenchanted with life. If his desire for pleasure
          lingers, he must consider himself still in the grip of
          tanha.

          Without tanha we would feel discomfited. In conjunction
          with avijja, tanha makes us blind to dukkha and creates
          the illusion of sukha. So we frantically seek sources of
          pleasure. Consider, for example, men's fondness for
          movies and dramatic performances. These entertainments
          cost time and money but tanha makes them irresistible
          although to the person who has no craving for them they
          are sources of suffering.

          A more obvious example is smoking. The smoker delights
          in inhaling the tobacco smoke but to the non-smoker it
          is a kind of self-inflicted suffering. The non-smoker is
          free from all the troubles that beset the smoker. He
          leads a relatively care-free and happy life because he
          has no craving for tobacco. Tanha as the source of
          dukkha is also evident in the habit of betel-chewing.
          Many people enjoy it although in fact it is a
          troublesome habit.

          Like the smoker and the betel-chewer, people seek to
          gratify their craving and this tanha-inspired effort is
          the mainspring of rebirth that leads to old age,
          sickness and death.

          Suffering and desire as its cause are evident in
          everyday life but it is hard to see these truths for
          they are profound and one can realize them not through
          reflection but only through the practice of vipassana.

          Ignorance Of The Third And Fourth Noble Truths

          Avijja also means ignorance of the cessation of dukkha
          and the way to it. These two truths are also profound
          and hard to understand for the truth about cessation of
          dukkha concerns Nibbana which is to be realized only on
          the Ariyan holy path, and the truth about the way is
          certainly known only to the yogi who has attained the
          path. No wonder that many people are ignorant of these
          truths.

          Ignorance of the end of suffering is widespread and so
          world religions describe the supreme goal in many ways.
          Some say that suffering will come to an end
          automatically in due course of time. Some regard sensual
          pleasure as the highest good and reject the idea of a
          future life. This variety of beliefs is due to ignorance
          of the real Nibbana. Even among Buddhists some hold that
          Nibbana is an abode or a sort of paradise and there are
          many arguments about it. All these show how hard it is
          to understand Nibbana.

          In reality Nibbana is the total extinction of the
          nama-rupa process that occurs ceaselessly on the basis
          of causal relationship. Thus according to the doctrine
          of Paticcasamuppada, avijja, sankhara etc., give rise to
          nama-rupa, etc., and this causal process involves old
          age, death and the other evils of life. If avijja, etc.,
          becomes extinct on the Ariyan path, so do their effects
          and all kinds of dukkha and this complete end to dukkha
          is Nibbana.

          For example, a lamp that is refuelled will keep on
          burning, but if it is not refuelled there will be a
          complete extinction of flame. Likewise for the yogi on
          the Ariyan path who has attained Nibbana, all the causes
          such as avijja, etc., have become extinct and so do all
          the effects such as rebirth, etc. This means total
          extinction of suffering, that is, Nibbana which the yogi
          must understand and appreciate before he actually
          realizes it.

          This concept of Nibbana does not appeal to those who
          have a strong craving for life. To them the cessation of
          nama-rupa process would mean nothing more than eternal
          death. Nevertheless, intellectual acceptance of Nibbana
          is necessary because on it depends the yogi's
          whole-hearted and persistent effort to attain the
          supreme goal.

          Knowledge of the fourth truth, viz., truth about the way
          to the end of dukkha is also of vital importance. Only
          the Buddhas can proclaim the right path; it is
          impossible for anyone else, be he a deva, a Brahma or a
          human being, to do so. But there are various
          speculations and teachings about the path. Some advocate
          ordinary morality such as love, altruism, patience,
          alms-giving, etc., while others stress the practice of
          mundane jhana. All these practices are commendable.
          According to the Buddhist teaching, they lead to
          relative welfare in the deva-Brahma worlds but do not
          ensure freedom from samsaric dukkha such as old age,
          etc. So they do not form the right path to Nibbana
          although they are helpful in the effort to attain it.

          Some resort to self-mortification such as fasting,
          living in a state of nature and so forth. Some worship
          devas or animals. Some live like animals. From the
          Buddhist point of view all these represent what is
          termed //silabbataparamasa// which means any practice
          that has nothing to do with the Eightfold Path.

          The Noble Eightfold Path comprises right view, right
          intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood,
          right effort, right mindfulness and right contemplation.
          The path is of three kinds, viz., the basic path, the
          preliminary path and the Ariyan path. Of these the most
          vital is the Ariyan path but this path should not be the
          primary objective of the yogi nor does it require him to
          spend much time and energy on it. For, as the vipassana
          practice on the preliminary path develops, the insight
          on the Ariyan level occurs for a thought-moment. For
          example, it requires much time and effort to produce
          fire by friction but ignition is a matter of a moment's
          duration. Similarly, the insight on the Ariyan path is
          instantaneous but it pre-supposes much practice of
          vipassana on the preliminary path.

          Right View, Etc.

          Vipassana insight is the insight that occurs at every
          moment of contemplation. The yogi who notes every
          psycho-physical phenomenon becomes aware of its real
          nature. Thus he focuses his attention on the bending of
          his arms or legs and he realizes the elements of
          rigidity and motion. This means right view in connection
          with //vayodhatu//. Without mindfulness there will arise
          illusion of "It is the hand", "It is a man", and so
          forth. Only the mindful yogi sees things as they really
          are.

          The same may be said of right view in regard to
          sensation in the body, e.g. imagination, intention. When
          the mind becomes fixed and calm, the yogi finds the
          nama-rupa phenomena arising and vanishing and so he
          gains insight into their anicca, dukkha and anatta.

          Right belief implies right intention and other
          associative dhamma on the path. Insight on the path
          occurs at every moment of contemplation. With the
          attainment of perfect insight into the three
          characteristics of existence, the yogi sees Nibbana.
          Hence, if Nibbana is to be realized here and now, the
          practice of vipassana is essential. The yogi who cannot
          as yet practise vipassana should focus on the path that
          is the basis of vipassana practice. This basic path
          means doing good deeds motivated by the belief in Kamma.
          In other words, it is the practice of dana, sila etc.,
          in the hope of attaining Nibbana. 

          All the paths (magga) - the basic, the preliminary and
          the Ariyan, form the three-fold path leading to Nibbana.
          In particular, the yogi must recognize the Ariyan path
          as the dhamma that is to be desired, cherished and
          adored. Such a recognition is essential to strenuous
          effort in the practice of vipassana. The yogi must also
          accept the vipassana magga as a noble dhamma and know
          how to practise it.

          Some people are ignorant of the way to Nibbana. On top
          of that they belittle the Nibbana-oriented good deeds of
          other people. Some deprecate the teaching and practice
          of other people although they have never practised
          vipassana effectively. Some criticize the right method
          because they are attached to their wrong method. All
          these people have avijja which means ignorance of and
          misconception about the right path. It is avijja not to
          know that dana, sila and bhavana lead to Nibbana and it
          is avijja too to regard dana, etc. as harmful to one's
          interest. The more destructive avijja is ignorance of
          and illusion about the right method of contemplation.

          Ignorance of the right path is the most terrible form of
          avijja. For it makes its victims blind to good deeds and
          creates illusions, thereby preventing them from
          attaining human happiness or divine bliss, let alone the
          Ariyan path and Nibbana. Yet most people remain steeped
          in ignorance, unmindful of the need to devote themselves
          to dana, sila and bhavana.

          Avijja Leads To Sankhara

          To them sensual pleasure is the source of happiness,
          Nibbana as the extinction of nama-rupa is undesirable
          and the way to it is arduous and painful. So they seek
          to gratify their desire through three kinds of action
          (kamma) viz., bodily action, verbal action and mental
          action. Some of these actions may be ethically good and
          some may be ethically bad. Some people will practise
          dana, etc. for their welfare hereafter, while some will
          resort to deceit or robbery to become rich.

          A Pali synonym for kamma (action) is sankhara. Sankhara
          is also of three kinds, viz., sankhara by thought,
          sankhara by speech and sankhara by body. Sankhara
          pre-supposes cetana (volition). The function of cetana
          is to conceive, to urge or to incite and as such it is
          the mainspring of all actions. It is involved in
          killing, alms-giving, etc. The yogi knows its nature
          empirically through contemplation.

          In another sense there are three kinds of sankharas,
          viz., punnabhi (wholesome) sankhara, with its good
          kammic result, apunnabhi (unwholesome) sankhara, with
          its bad kammic result and anenjabhi-sankhara that leads
          to wholesome arupajhana which literally means immobile
          jhana. Rupajhana and all the good actions having the
          kammic results in the sensual world are to be classified
          as punnabhi-sankhara. Punna literally means something
          that cleanses or purifies. Just as a man washes the dirt
          off his body with soap, so also we have to rid ourselves
          of kammic impurities through dana, sila and bhavana.
          These good deeds are conducive to welfare and prosperity
          in the present life and hereafter.

          Another meaning of punna is the tendency to fulfil the
          desire of the doer of the good deed. Good deeds help to
          fulfil various human desires, e.g. the desire for
          health, longevity, wealth and so forth. If a good deed
          is motivated by the hope for Nibbana, it leads to a life
          that makes it possible to attain his goal or it may
          ensure his happiness and welfare till the end of his
          last existence. Abhisankhara is the effort to do
          something for one's own welfare. It tends to have good
          or evil kammic results. So punnabhi-sankhara is good
          deed with good kammic result. There are eight types of
          good deed in sensual sphere (kamavacarakusala) and five
          types in fine-material sphere (rupavacara). All these
          may be summed up as of three kinds, viz., dana, sila and
          bhavana.

          Giving dana gladly means wholesome consciousness which
          is kammically very fruitful. So the donor should rejoice
          before, during and after the act of alms-giving. In the
          scriptures, this kind of dana is credited with great
          kammic productivity. The attitude of the donor may also
          be one of indifference (upekkha) but, if the mind is
          clear, his act of dana too has high kammic potential Any
          act of alms-giving that is based on the belief in kamma
          is rational and it may bear fruit in the form of rebirth
          with no predisposition to greed, ill-will and ignorance.
          An act of dana that has nothing to do with a sense of
          its moral value or the belief in kammic result is good
          but unintelligent and it will lead to rebirth with no
          great intelligence. It may bear such kammic fruit in
          everyday life but it does not make the donor intelligent
          enough to attain the path in his next life.

          Again one may do a good deed spontaneously without being
          urged by others (asankharika-kusala); some do good deeds
          at the instigation of others (sasankharika-kusala). Of
          these two kinds of good deeds, the former is kammically
          more fruitful than the latter. When we consider the four
          kinds of good deeds mentioned earlier in terms of these
          last two attributes, we have a total of eight types of
          wholesome consciousness in the sensual sphere. Whenever
          we do a good deed, we are prompted to do so by one of
          these kusala dhammas; when we practise concentration and
          meditation, we have to begin with these eight types of
          wholesome dhammas.

          If it is bhavana that can lead to jhana, the yogi
          attains rupavacara jhana when his samadhi is
          well-developed. Jhana means total concentration of mind
          on an object of mental training. Samatha jhana is
          concentration for bare tranquillity. Jhana samadhi is
          like the flame burning in still air. According to the
          Suttas, the rupavacara jhana has four levels; in
          Abhidhamma it has five levels.

          Unwholesome Kammas

          Opposed to punnabhisankhara is apunnabhisankhara or
          unwholesome kamma formations. These immoral deeds lead
          to lower worlds and evils in human life such as
          ugliness, infirmities and so forth. They number twelve
          in terms of consciousness, viz., eight rooted in greed
          (lobha), two rooted in ill-will (dosa) and two rooted in
          ignorance (moha).

          The lobha-based dhammas comprise four with wrong belief
          and four without it. Of the four dhammas with wrong
          belief, two are joyful, spontaneous (asankharika) dhamma
          and joyful but unspontaneous (sasankharika) dhamma. The
          neutral (upekkha) unwholesome dhammas may be classified
          in the same way. Likewise there are two joyful
          lobha-based dhammas without wrong belief and two
          lobha-based dhammas without joy or wrong belief. Every
          kamma is characterized by one of these eight lobha-based
          dhammas. The dosa-based dhammas are of two kinds, viz.,
          spontaneous kamma and unspontaneous kamma. This
          dosa-based consciousness is the mainspring of anger,
          dejection, fear and revulsion.

          The two kinds of moha-based consciousness are doubt
          (vicikiccha) and restlessness (uddhacca). The former
          concerns doubts about the Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha, sila,
          samadhi, the idea of a future life and so forth. The
          latter refers to the person who is distracted and
          absent-minded. The mind is seldom calm and it usually
          goes wandering when it is not restrained through the
          practice of bhavana. It is said, however, that uddhacca
          does not lead to the lower worlds. The other eleven
          unwholesome dhammas do so under certain circumstances
          and even in case of a good rebirth, they usually have
          bad kammic effects such as sickliness. These twelve
          kinds of unwholesome volition (cetana) are called
          apunnabhisankhara.

          All over the world people wish to be happy and so they
          strive for their material welfare in the present life
          and hereafter. But it is greed and ill-will that largely
          characterize their activities. Wholesome consciousness
          is confined to those who have good friends, who have
          heard their dhamma and who think rationally.

          Some go morally astray, being misled by their selfish
          teacher. In the lifetime of the Buddha, a lay Buddhist
          abused good monks and so on his death he became a peta
          in the latrine of the monastery he had donated to the
          Sangha. He told the elder thera Moggallana about his
          misdeed when the latter saw him with his divine eye.
          What a terrible fate for a man who had materially
          supported the Sangha for his welfare in after-life, but
          was misguided to the lower world by his teacher. This
          shows that the person whose company we seek should
          possess not only deep knowledge but also good character.

          The mark of a good man is abstinence from any act,
          speech or thought that is harmful to other people. Those
          who keep company with good men or good bhikkhus have the
          opportunity to hear the good dhamma and if he thinks
          wisely, his thoughts will lead to wholesome kammas. On
          the other hand evil teachers or friends, false teachings
          and improper thoughts may lead to moral disaster. Some
          who bore unblemished character in the beginning were
          ruined by corrupt thoughts. They were convicted of
          theft, robbery or misappropriation and their
          long-standing reputation was damaged once and forever.
          All their suffering had its origin in the illusion of
          happiness. Contrary to their expectations, they found
          themselves in trouble when it was too late. Some
          misdeeds do not produce immediate kammic results but
          they come to light in due course and lead to suffering.
          If retribution does not follow the evil-doer here and
          now, it overtakes him in afterlife as in the case of the
          donor of the monastery who became a peta for his evil
          words.

          His teacher who had misguided him fared worse after his
          death. For he occupied a place below his former pupil
          and had to live on his excreta. The kammic result of his
          misdeed was indeed frightful. He had committed it for
          his own end but it backfired and he had to suffer
          terribly for it.

          Some jungle tribes make animal sacrifices to gods for
          good harvest, security, etc. These primitive beliefs
          still prevail among some urban people. Some worship the
          chief nat'as if he were the Buddha. Some kill animals to
          feed guests on the occasion of religious alms-giving.
          Even some ignorant Buddhists have misgivings about this
          practice. Whatever the object of the donor, killing has
          bad kammic result and it is not a good deed despite the
          belief of the killer to the contrary.

          A good deed bears the mark of moral purity. Killing or
          hurting a living being cannot be morally pure in any
          sense if you identify yourself with the victim. He faces
          death or endures ill-treatment only because he cannot
          avoid it. He will surely retaliate if he is in a
          position to do so. Some people pray for vengeance and so
          the killer is killed in his next existence or he has
          suffer in hell for his misdeed. The Pitaka abounds in
          many instances of the kammic consequences of killing.

          Some long for human or deva life and devote themselves
          to dana, sila and bhavana. Their good deeds serve to
          fulfil their wishes and lead to welfare in afterlife,
          but every life is subject to old age and death, and
          human life is inextricably bound up with ill-health, and
          mental suffering. Some crave for the Brahma-world and
          practise jhana. They may live happily for many kappas
          (world-systems) as Brahmas. But when life has run its
          course, they will be reborn as human beings or devas and
          any evil deed that they do may bring them to the lower
          worlds. After all, the glorification of the Brahma-life
          is an illusion.

          The illusion of happiness is not confined to common
          people. The illusion (vipallasa and avijja) that makes
          us regard dukkha as sukha lingers at the first two
          stages of the holy path, and even at the anagami stage
          the yogi still mistakes material life (rupa-bhava) and
          immaterial life (arupa-bhava) for a life of bliss. So
          the object of the Ariyas at the first three stages is to
          do good. As for the common people, they are mired in all
          the four illusions that make them regard the impermanent
          as permanent, the dukkha of nama-rupa as sukha, the
          impersonal as personality (atta) and the unpleasant as
          pleasant. Associated with these illusions are the four
          avijjas. Because of these misconceptions and ignorance,
          every bodily, verbal or mental action gives rise to good
          or bad kamma. A good kamma arises only from volitional
          effort coupled with faith, mindfulness and so forth. If
          the mind is left to itself, it is likely to produce bad
          kamma.

          Rejection Of Good Kamma Means Bad Kamma

          Some people misinterpret the lack of good or bad kamma
          on the part of the Arahat and say that we should avoid
          doing good deeds. For an ordinary person the rejection
          of good kamma will mean the upsurge of bad kamma, just
          as the exodus of good people from a city leaves only
          fools and rogues, or the removal of useful trees is
          followed by the growth of useless grass and weeds. The
          man who rejects good deeds is bound to do bad deeds that
          will land him in the lower worlds. It will be hard for
          him to return to the human world.

          In point of fact, the Arahat's dissociation from good
          kamma means only that because of the extinction of
          avijja, his action is kammically unproductive. Indeed
          the Arahats do good deeds such as revering the elder
          theras, preaching, giving alms, helping living beings
          who are in trouble and so forth. But, with their total
          realization of the four noble truths and the elimination
          of avijja, their good actions do not have any kammic
          effect. So it is said that the Arahat does not have good
          kamma, not that he avoids doing good deeds.

          An ordinary person who does not care for good deeds
          because of his avijja and mistaken view, will build up
          only bad kamma that are bound to lead to the lower
          worlds. In fact the lack of the desire to do good is a
          sign of abysmal ignorance that makes the holy path. and
          Nibbana remote. The mind becomes inclined to good deeds
          in so far as avijja loses its hold on it. A sotapanna
          yoga is more interested in doing good than when he was
          an ordinary man. The same may be said of those at the
          higher stages of the Ariyan path. The only difference is
          the increasing desire to give up doing things irrelevant
          to the path and devote more time to contemplation. So,
          good deeds should not be lumped together with bad deeds
          and purposely avoided. Every action that is bound up
          with avijja means either good kamma or bad kamma. In the
          absence of good kamma all will be bad kamma.

          Ignorance and Illusion

          Truth and falsehood are mutually exclusive. If you do
          not know the truth, you accept falsehood and vice versa.
          Those who do not know the Four Noble Truths have
          misconceptions about dukkha which, posing as sukha,
          deceive and oppress them.

          Apart from tanha which, when gratified affords pleasure,
          everything in the sensual world is real dukkha. All
          sense-objects are subject to ceaseless flux and
          unreliable. Yet to the ignorant person they appear to be
          good and pleasant. They make him nostalgic about what
          they regard as their happy days in the past and
          optimistic about their future. Because of their
          misconception, they long for what they consider to be
          the good things in life. This is the cause of their
          dukkha but they do not realize it. On the contrary they
          think that their happiness depends on the fulfilment of
          their desires. So they see nothing wrong with their
          desire for sensual pleasure. In fact, the truths about
          the end of dukkha and the way to it are foreign to most
          people. Some who learn these truths from others or
          accept them intellectually do not appreciate them. They
          do not care for Nibbana or the way to it. They think
          that the way is beset with hardships and privations.

          The hope for happiness is the mainspring of human
          action. Actions in deed, speech or thought are called
          kamma or sankhara. We have referred to three kinds of
          sankhara, the two kinds of good kamma comprising the
          first sankhara, viz., the eight good kammas in the
          sensual world and the good kammas in the material world;
          we have also mentioned two kinds of good kamma or
          consciousness, viz., one associated with intelligence
          and the other divorced from intelligence. In the
          practice of vipassana the yogi's mind is intelligent if
          it becomes aware of the real nature of nama-rupa
          (anicca, dukkha, anatta), through contemplation. It is
          not intelligent if it means little more than the
          recitation of Pali words and superficial observation. In
          ordinary morality a sense of moral values is intelligent
          if it is associated with the belief in the law of kamma.

          Some people say that an intelligent act of dana must
          involve the contemplation of the anicca, dukkha and
          anatta of the donor, the recipient and the offering.
          This view is based on Atthasalini (a commentary on
          Abhidhammapitaka) which mentions the contemplation on
          the impermanence of everything after giving alms. But
          the reference is to contemplation after the act of dana,
          not before or while doing it. Moreover, the object is
          not to make the act intelligent but to create wholesome
          kamma in vipassana practice. If by intelligent dana is
          meant only the dana that pre-supposes such
          contemplation, all the other dana of non-Buddhists would
          have to be dubbed unintelligent acts and it is of course
          absurd to do so.

          The accounts of alms-giving by bodhisattas make no
          mention of contemplation nor did the Buddha insist on it
          as a pre-requisite to an act of dana. The scriptures say
          only that the kammic potential of dana depends on the
          spiritual level of the recipient and this is the only
          teaching that we should consider in alms-giving. If the
          donor and the recipient were to be regarded as mere
          nama-rupa subject to anicca, etc., they would be on
          equal footing. The act of dana would then lack
          inspiration and much kammic potential.

          In fact the object of alms-giving is not vipassana
          contemplation but the benefits accruing to the donor. So
          the Buddha points out the would-be recipients who can
          make dana immensely beneficial and the importance of
          right reflection (belief in kamma).

          On one occasion Visakha, the lay woman asked the Buddha
          for lifelong permission to make eight kinds of offering
          to the Sangha; these were (1) bathing garments for the
          bhikkhus, (2) food for guest-monks, (3) food for
          travelling monks, (4) food for sick monks, (5) food for
          the monk who attended on a sick monk, (6) medicine for
          the sick monk, (7) rice-gruel for the Sangha and (8)
          bathing garments for the bhikkhunis. The Buddha asked
          Visakha what benefits she hoped to have in offering such
          things and the substance of Visakha's reply is as
          follows.

          "At the end of the lent, the bhikkhus from all parts of
          the country will come to see the Buddha. They will tell
          the Lord about the death of certain monks and ask him
          about their rebirth and stages on the holy path that
          they (the deceased monks) had attained. The Lord will
          reveal their spiritual attainments. I will then approach
          the visiting monks and ask them whether their late
          fellow-monks had ever visited Savatthi city. If they say
          yes, I will conclude that the Noble one who is now at
          the sotapanna or any other stage on the holy path must
          have certainly used one of my offerings. This
          remembrance of my good kamma will fill me with joy. It
          will be conducive to peace, tranquillity and
          self-development."

          Here it is worthy of note that the reference is not to
          the contemplation on the impermanence of the namarupa of
          the deceased monks but to the spiritual attainments that
          distinguished them in afterlife. Importance is attached
          to the contemplation that leads to ecstasy and training
          in self-development. Hence, the most appropriate object
          of contemplation in doing dana is the noble attributes
          of the recipient such as the noble character of the
          Buddha when laying flowers at the shrine, the holy life
          of the bhikkhu when offering food and so forth.

          Preaching or hearing the dhamma is a wholesome kamma and
          it is an intelligent act if the dhamma is understood.
          Every good deed based on the belief in kamma is an
          intelligent kamma. Without the belief, a good act is
          wholesome but unintelligent as are the good acts of some
          children who imitate the elders and worship the Buddha
          image and the good acts of some people who reject the
          belief in kamma but are helpful, polite and charitable.

          The five material wholesome dhammas (rupakusala-dhamma)
          are those associated with five jhanas. They are
          accessible only through the practice of samatha that
          leads to jhana. The eight wholesome dhammas and the five
          material wholesome dhammas form the punnabhisankhara.
          Apunnabhisankhara or unwholesome kammas number twelve in
          terms of consciousness. Here sankhara means volition
          (cetana). Of the twelve unwholesome sankharas eight are
          based on greed, two on anger and two on ignorance.

          The greed-based (lobha-mula) consciousness is of eight
          kinds viz., four with joy and attachment and four
          without joy, but with attachment (upekkha sahagutta). Of
          the first four kinds two are bound up with belief and,
          of the two with the belief or without the belief, one is
          non-spontaneous (sasankharika) and the other is
          spontaneous (asankharika). Belief is of three kinds,
          viz., belief in ego-entity, belief in immortality of
          ego, and belief in annihilation of the ego without there
          being any kammic effect of good or bad deeds.

          Few people are free from the belief in ego-entity. The
          belief dominates those who do not know that life is a
          nama-rupa process without a soul or a being. The belief
          is weak among those who have some knowledge of Buddhist
          scriptures but their bookish knowledge does not help
          them to overcome it completely. The yogis who have had a
          clear insight into the nature of nama-rupa through
          contemplation are usually free from the belief. Yet they
          may hark back to the belief if they stop contemplating
          before they attain the path. As for the common people,
          the ego-belief is deep-rooted, making them think that it
          is the self or the ego which is the agent of whatever
          they do or feel or think. Again those who believe in
          total extinction after death and reject the idea of
          future life and kamma have unwholesome consciousness
          that is bound up with nihilistic beliefs.

          Hatred-based (dosa-mula) consciousness comprises doubt
          and restlessness. Doubts about the Buddha, Nibbana,
          anatta and so forth are labelled vicikiccha.

          Hatred-based consciousness is of two kinds, viz.,
          voluntary consciousness and involuntary consciousness.
          But there are many kinds of hatred such as anger, envy,
          anxiety, grief, fear and so forth. Ignorance-based
          (moha-mula) consciousness comprises doubt and
          restlessness. Doubts about the Buddha, Nibbana, anatta
          and so forth are labelled vicikiccha. The mind is
          subject to doubt (uddhacca) when it wanders here and
          there restlessly.

          Thus apunnabhisankhara means the eight greed-based
          mental factors, two hatred-based mental factors and two
          ignorance-based mental factors. It is opposed to
          punnabhisankhara. It serves to purify nama-rupa, leads
          to good rebirth with good kammic results whereas the
          other defiles the nama-rupa process and leads to bad
          rebirth with bad kammic results.

          People do evil deeds for their welfare. They kill,
          steal, rob or give false evidence at court for their
          wellbeing. Even those who kill their parents do so to
          achieve their own ends. For example, prince Ajatasattu
          killed his father to become king. Misguided by his
          teacher Devadatta, he had concluded that he would be
          able to enjoy life as a king for a longer period if he
          could do away with his father and take his place. For
          his great evil of patricide and the murder of a
          sotapanna at that, he was seized with remorse and
          anxiety that caused him physical suffering as well.
          Later on, he was killed by his son and reborn in hell
          where he is now suffering terribly for his misdeed.

          In the time of Kakusandha Buddha the Mara called Susi
          did his utmost to harm the Buddha and the Sangha.
          Failing to achieve his object, he possessed a man and
          stoned to death the chief disciple Arahat behind the
          Buddha. For this horrible crime he instantly landed in
          Avici hell, the lowest of the thirty-one worlds of
          living beings. As a Mara he had lorded it over others
          but in Avici he lay prostrate under the heels of the
          guardians of hell. He had hoped to rejoice over the
          fulfilment of his evil desire, but now he had to suffer
          for his evil kamma. This is true of evil-doers all over
          the world.

          It is the hope for happiness also that forms the
          mainspring of other two types of action, viz.,
          punnabhisankhara and anenjabhisankhara.
          Anenjabhisankhara means the four
          arupajhana-kusaladhammas. Anenja means equanimity or
          self-possession. A loud noise nearby may upset the
          equanimity (samapatti) of a yogi who is absorbed in rupa
          jhana. But arupa jhana is invulnerable to such
          distractions. Arupa jhana is of four kinds according as
          it relates to (1) sphere of unbounded space
          (akasanancayatana jhana), sphere of nothingness
          (akincannayatana jhana) and (4) sphere of neither
          perception-nor-non-perception (nevasannanasannayatana
          jhana). These four jhanas are the sankharas that lead to
          the four arupa worlds. Apunnabhisankhara leads to the
          four lower worlds and punnabhisankhara leads to human,
          deva and rupa-Brahma worlds.

          People do these three kinds of kammas or sankharas for
          their welfare and as a result there arises vinnana or
          consciousness. With vinnana there also come into being
          nama-rupa, salayatana, phassa, etc., of the new
          existence.

          Sankhara Causes Vinnana

          Because of avijja there is sankhara which in turn causes
          vinnana. As a result of good or bad kammas in the
          previous life there arises the stream of consciousness
          beginning with rebirth consciousness in the new life.
          Evil deeds may, for example, lead to the four lower
          worlds. After that there arises the stream of vinnana
          called bhavanga-citta which functions ceaselessly when
          the six kinds of vithi consciousness do not occur at the
          moment of seeing, hearing, smelling, eating, touching
          and thinking. In other words, bhavanga is the kind of
          subconsciousness that we have when we are asleep. We die
          with this subconsciousness and it is then called
          cuticitta. So the rebirth-consciousness, the
          subconsciousness and the cuti or death-consciousness
          represent the mind which results from the kamma of
          previous life.

          The five kinds of consciousness associated with the five
          unpleasant sense-objects such as unpleasant
          eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, etc., are due to
          unwholesome kamma as are (1) the consciousness that is
          focused on these five sense-objects and (2) the
          inquiring (santirana) consciousness. There are
          altogether seven types of consciousness that stem from
          bad kamma (apunnabhisankhara). As for anenjabhisankhara,
          because of the four arupakusala-dhammas there arises the
          resulting arupa-consciousness in the four immaterial
          worlds in the form of rebirth-consciousness in the
          beginning, the bhavanga citta in the middle, and the
          cuticitta as the end of existence.

          Similarly, because of the five rupakusala-dhamma there
          arise five rupa vipakacittas in rupa-brahma worlds. Then
          there are eight mahavipakacittas corresponding to eight
          good kammas in the sensual sphere. They form the
          rebirth, bhavanga and cuticittas in the human world and
          six deva-worlds. They also register pleasant
          sense-objects (tadarammana) after seven impulse-moments
          (javana) that occur on seeing, hearing, etc. Also due to
          good consciousness associated with five pleasant
          sense-objects, the registering consciousness, the
          joyful, inquiring consciousness and the nonchalant,
          inquiring consciousness. Hence, the resulting (vipaka)
          consciousness is of thirty-two kinds, viz., four
          arupavipaka, five rupavipaka, seven akusala vipaka and
          sixteen kusala vipaka in sensual sphere. All these
          thirty-two vipaka are resultants of sankhara.

          How Sankhara Leads To New Vinnana

          It is very important, but hard to understand how
          sankhara gives rise to rebirth-consciousness. Ledi
          Sayadaw points out that this part of the teaching on
          paticcasamuppada leaves much room for misunderstanding.
          It is necessary to understand the extinction of the last
          consciousness (cuticitta) together with all nama-rupa as
          well as the immediate arising of the
          rebirth-consciousness together with the new nama-rupa as
          a result of good or bad kammas in the case of living
          beings who are not yet free from defilements. Lack of
          this understanding usually leads to the belief in
          transmigration of souls (sassataditthi) or the belief in
          annihilation after death (ucchedaditthi) which is held
          by modern materialists.

          The belief in annihilation is due to ignorance of the
          relation between cause and effect after death. It is
          easy to see how avijja leads to sankhara and how the
          sense-bases (ayatana), contact, sensation, craving,
          etc., form links in the chain of causation for these are
          evident in the facts of life. But the emergence of new
          existence following death is not apparent and, hence,
          the belief that there is nothing after death.

          Learned people who think on the basis of faith usually
          accept the teaching that sankhara gives rise to rebirth
          consciousness. But it does not lend itself to purely
          rational and empirical approach and today it is being
          challenged by the materialistic view of life. The way
          rebirth takes place is crystal clear to the yogi who has
          practised vipassana. He finds that the units of
          consciousness arise and pass away ceaselessly, that they
          appear and disappear one after another rapidly. This is
          what he discovers by experience, not what he learns from
          his teachers. Of course he does not know so much in the
          beginning. He discovers the fact only when he attains
          sammasana and udayabbaya insights. The general idea of
          death and rebirth mental units dawns on him with the
          development of paccayapariggaha insights but, it is
          sammasana and udayabbaya insights that leave no doubt
          about rebirth. On the basis of his insight, he realizes
          that death means the disappearance of the last unit of
          consciousness and that rebirth means the arising of the
          first unit of consciousness in the manner of the
          vanishing and arising of consciousness-units that he
          notes in the practice of vipassana.

          Those who do not have vipassana insight miss the point.
          They believe in a permanent ego and identify it with the
          mind. It is rejected by those who have a good knowledge
          of Abhidhamma but, it lingers in some people because of
          attachment to it in their previous lives. Even the
          contemplating yogi who is not yet intellectually mature
          sometimes feels tempted to accept it.

          Sassata And Uccheda

          To the ordinary people who are wedded to the ego-belief,
          death means the extinction of individual entity or its
          displacement to another abode or existence. This is a
          misconception called ucchedaditthi if it is the belief
          in annihilation, or sassataditthi if it is belief in the
          transfer of the soul to another body or abode. Some
          believe that consciousness develops spontaneously with
          the growth and maturation of the body (ahetukaditthi).

          Some have misconceptions about samsara or nama-rupa
          process. They regard the body as the temporary abode of
          the life principle that passes on from one abode to
          another. The disintegration of the physical body is
          undeniable, but some people pin their faith to the
          resurrection of the body in due course of time and so
          they treat the dead body with respect. These views
          confirm the Ledi Sayadaw's statement that the causal
          links between sankhara and vinnana lends itself to
          misinterpretation.

          Ordinary Buddhists are not wholly free from these
          misconceptions but, because of their belief in the
          Buddhist doctrine of anatta, they do not harbour the
          illusions so blindly as to harm their vipassana
          practice. So even without a thorough knowledge about the
          nature of death, rebirth and nama-rupa, they can
          enlighten themselves through contemplation.

          For example, shortly after the parinibbana of the
          Buddha, the thera Channa practised vipassana but made
          little progress because of his ego-belief. Then as he
          followed Ananda's discourse on Paticcasamuppada, he
          contemplated, overcame his illusion and attained
          Arahatship. Again, in the time of the Buddha, bhikkhu
          Yamaka believed that the Arahat was annihilated after
          his parinibbana. Sariputta summoned and preached to him.
          While following the sermon, Yamaka contemplated, and
          achieved liberation. So those who have faith in the
          Buddha need not be disheartened. If they practised
          vipassana zealously and whole-heartedly, they will
          become enlightened.

          Because of their ignorance and doubts about the nature
          of death and conception or leaning to uccheda belief,
          some people ask whether there is a future life after
          death. The question by itself presupposes atta or soul
          or life-force in a living being. Materialism rejects the
          idea of soul but the ego-illusion is implicit in its
          differentiation of the living from the dead. The
          question of those who accept the ego explicitly or by
          implication are hard to answer from the Buddhist point
          of view. If we say that there is future life, they will
          conclude that we support the ego-belief. But Buddhism
          does not categorically deny the future life. Hence, the
          Buddha's refusal to answer this question. Moreover, it
          is hard to produce evidence for ordinary people. Psychic
          persons may be able to point out the hell or the
          deva-worlds but sceptics will dismiss such exhibition as
          black magic or chicanery. So the Buddha did not answer
          the question directly, but said that there is continuum
          of nama-rupa process in the wake of death without the
          extinction of defilements.

          The problem of future life does not admit any
          intellectual approach. It is to be settled only through
          certain Buddhist practices. These practices enable the
          yogi to acquire psychic powers by virtue of which he can
          see the dead, the good men who have attained the
          deva-worlds, as well as the evil persons who are
          suffering in the nether worlds. What he sees is as clear
          as what an observer who occupies a position directly
          opposite two houses sees - persons passing from one
          house to the other. Among the many devas, animals, etc.,
          of the higher and lower realms, he (the yogi) can easily
          find the person whom he wants to see.

          It is possible for the yogis to attain jhana and psychic
          powers. There is no teaching which rules out this
          possibility. Some practising yogis have in fact had
          paranormal contact with the other world (paraloka). But
          paranormal gifts are hard to come by. Their emergence
          depends on intense concentration and so the easier way
          is to practise vipassana. The problem of life becomes
          fairly clear when the development of paccaya-pariggaha
          insight makes the yogi well aware of the nature of death
          and conception. It becomes clearer when he attains
          sammasana, udayabbaya and bhanga insights for then he
          sees clearly how the consciousness units arise and pass
          away ceaselessly one after another and how death means
          the passing away of the last unit to be followed by
          conception or the arising of the first
          consciousness-unit in a new existence. But this insight
          is still vulnerable and it is only when the yogi attains
          at least the sotapatti stage that he becomes wholly free
          of all doubts about future life. The trouble is that
          people wish to inquire about it instead of practising
          vipassana. Some seek the verdict of Western scientists
          and philosophers while others accept the teaching of
          those who are reputed to be Arahats with psychic powers.
          But, the best thing is to seek the answer through
          vipassana practice instead of relying on other people.

          At the stage of udayabbaya insight the yogi can clearly
          see how in the wake of the consciousness-unit that has
          passed away, there follows a new unit attached to a
          sense-object. On the basis of this experience he
          realizes how the new existence begins with
          consciousness-unit that arises, conditioned by
          attachment to an object at the moment of dying in a
          previous life.

          Before death the stream of consciousness depends on the
          physical body and is continuous with one unit following
          the other uninterruptedly. After death, the body
          disintegrates and the stream of consciousness shifts to
          the physical process in another abode. This may be
          likened to the continuous appearance of light in an
          electric bulb through the ceaseless generation of
          electricity. When the bulb is burnt up, the light goes
          out but the potential electric energy keeps on coming.
          Light reappears when the old bulb is replaced with a new
          one. Here, the bulb, energy and light are all changing
          physical processes and we should be mindful of their
          impermanent character.

          The commentary cites the analogies of echo, flame,
          impression of a seal and reflection in the mirror. Echo
          is reflection or repetition of a sound produced by the
          impact of sound waves on walls, woods, etc. But it does
          not mean the transfer of the original sound to a distant
          place although we cannot deny the causal relation
          between the sound and the echo either. When you look at
          a mirror your face is reflected on it, but you must not
          confuse the reflection with your face although it is
          causally related to the latter. A lamp, which is
          burning, may be used to light up another lamp. The flame
          of the new lamp is obviously not the flame of. the old
          lamp since the latter is still burning but, neither is
          it causally unrelated to the flame of the old lamp.
          Lastly, the seal leaves an impression that is like its
          face, but it is not the face and it cannot occur in the
          absence of the seal either.

          These analogies help to throw some light on the nature
          of rebirth process. When a person is dying, his kamma,
          the signs and visions related to it and visions of the
          future life appear. After his death, there arises the
          rebirth consciousness conditioned by one of these
          visions at the last moment of the previous existence. So
          rebirth does not mean the passage of the last unit of
          consciousness to another life but, since it is
          conditioned by the visions on death-bed, it is rooted in
          avijja, sankhara, etc., that form the links in the chain
          of causation leading to the visions of the dying person.

          Thus, rebirth consciousness is not the consciousness of
          the dying person but it is causally related to the
          previous life. Two consecutive units of consciousness
          are separate but, given the stream of consciousness, we
          speak of the same individual for the whole day, the
          whole year or the whole lifetime. Likewise, we speak of
          the last consciousness on death-bed together with
          rebirth consciousness as representing a single person. A
          man's attainment of deva or any other world is to be
          understood in the same sense. It does not mean the
          transfer of nama-rupa as a whole. We speak of a man or a
          person only because the rebirth concerns the stream of
          causally related mental units.

          So it is ucchedaditthi to believe that a person has
          nothing to do with a previous life since every person is
          annihilated on death. Most Buddhists are free from this
          belief. As the two consecutive lives are causally
          related, we speak of one person in conventional terms.

          But we must guard ourselves against the sassata view
          that rebirth means the transfer of the ego to a new
          abode.

          The yogi who has mature vipassana insight does not
          harbour the two beliefs because he is fully aware of the
          rising and passing away of mental units in the present
          life and their causal relations. This awareness leaves
          no room for the illusions of personal immortality or
          annihilation. The nature of consciousness is evident
          even to those who think objectively. Joy may be followed
          by dejection and vice versa or, a serene mind may give
          way to irritation and vice versa. These changing states
          of consciousness clearly shows its heterogeneous nature.
          Moreover, mental states may be associated through
          similarity, as for example, the intention to do a
          certain thing at night may occur again in the morning.
          The mental states do not differ, but are causally
          related to one another. Those who understand this
          relation between two consecutive states of consciousness
          can see that the same relation holds between the two
          mental elements that are separated only by death.

          Death-Bed Visions

          Consciousness in the new existence is of two kinds,
          viz., rebirth consciousness and the consciousness that
          occurs during the whole life. There are altogether l9
          kinds of rebirth consciousness, one in the lower worlds,
          nine in the sensual worlds of human beings and devas,
          five in rupa-brahma world and four in arupa-brahma
          worlds. As for the others that occur during the rest of
          life, they number thirty-two as resultant mental states
          (vipaka-vinnana). These enumerations will be
          intelligible only to those who have studied Abhidhamma.

          To a dying person, there appears the flashbacks of what
          he has done in life (kamma), the surrounding conditions
          associated with his kammic acts (kammanimitta) and the
          visions of his future life (gatinimitta). Kamma may
          assume the form of a flashback about the past or the
          hallucination about the present. A fisherman on his
          death-bed may talk as if he were catching fish or a man
          who has given much alms may think in his last hours that
          he is doing dana. Many years ago, I led a group of
          pilgrims from Shwebo to visit pagodas in Mandalay and
          Rangoon. An old man in the group died shortly after our
          return to Shwebo. He died muttering the words that were
          reminiscent of his experience during the pilgrimage.

          The dying man also has visions of the environment in
          which kammic deeds were done such as robes, monasteries,
          bhikkhus, Buddha images, etc., in connection with his
          acts of dana or weapons, places, victims in case of the
          murder he has committed.

          Then he sees visions of what he will find in his
          afterlife. For example, he will see hell-fire,
          hell-guards, etc., if he is bound to land in hell;
          devas, mansions, etc., if he is to pass on to
          deva-worlds and so forth. Once a dying brahmin was told
          by his friends that the vision of the flames which he
          saw indicated the brahma-world. He believed them and
          died only to find himself in hell. False beliefs are
          indeed dangerous. It is said that some people tell their
          dying friends to visualize their acts of killing a cow
          for dana, believing that such acts are beneficial.

          The Story Of Mahadhammika Upasaka

          In the time of the Buddha, there were in Savatthi city
          five hundred upasakas each with 500 followers. They all
          practised the dhamma. The eldest of them, Mahadhammika,
          the head of all upasakas had seven sons and seven
          daughters who also lived up to the teaching of the
          Buddha. As he grew old, he became sick and weak. He
          invited the bhikkhus to his house and while attending
          their recitation of the dhamma, he saw the celestial
          chariot arriving to take him to the deva-world. He said
          to the devas, "Please wait."

          The bhikkhus stopped reciting as they thought that the
          dying man had told them to do so. His sons and daughters
          cried, believing that he was babbling for fear of death.
          After the bhikkhus' departure, he came round, told the
          people around him to throw a garland of flowers up into
          the air. They did as they were told and lo! the garland
          remained hanging in the air. The upasaka said that the
          garland indicated the position of the chariot from
          Susita heaven, and after advising his daughters and sons
          to do good deeds like him for rebirth in the deva-world,
          he died and landed in Susita. This is how the vision of
          deva-world appears to the good man on his death-bed. A
          layman in Moulmein said that just before he died he saw
          a very good pucca building. This, too, may be a vision
          of the deva-world. Some dying persons who are to be
          reborn as human beings have visions of their would-be
          parents, residence and so forth. A Sayadaw in Moulmein
          was killed by robbers. Three years later a child from
          Mergui came to Moulmein and identified by name the
          Sayadaws with whom he said he had lived together in his
          previous life. He said that the robbers stabbed him when
          they did not get the money, that he ran away to the
          jetty where he got into a boat, reached Mergui and dwelt
          in the home of his parents. The flight, journey by boat,
          etc., were perhaps visions of the Sayadaw's afterlife.

          Flashbacks of kammic acts and visions of a future life
          occur even in cases of instant death. According to the
          commentary, they occur even when a fly on a bar of iron
          is crushed to pieces with a hammer. Today, there arc
          nuclear weapons that can reduce a big city to ashes in a
          moment. From the Buddhist point of view, these weapons
          have appeared because of the evil kamma of their
          potential victims. Those who are killed by these bombs
          also see the flashbacks and visions. This may sound
          incredible to those who do not know the mechanism of the
          mind thoroughly but, it presents no difficulty to the
          yogi who contemplates the nama-rupa in action. For it is
          said in the scriptures that units of consciousness arise
          and pass away by the billions in the twinkling of an
          eye. The yogi who has attained udayabbaya insight knows
          empirically that hundreds of mental units arise and
          dissolve in a moment. So he has no doubt about the
          possibility of consciousness centering or flashbacks and
          visions in those who meet violent and instant death.

          Consciousness is always focused on objects. We often
          recall what we have done and think of the deva-world or
          the human society. If a man who has done good deeds dies
          with these thoughts, he will be reborn as a deva or a
          human being. The objects of these thoughts on death-bed
          are called gatinimitta, visions of objects associated
          with kamma are called kammanimitta.

          References to these death-bed phenomena are to be found
          not only in the commentaries, but also in the Pali
          pitaka. In the Balapandita and other suttas, the Buddha
          speaks of the death-bed memories of good or bad deeds
          and likens them to the shadows of a mountain dominating
          the plains in the evening. It is impossible to remove
          them. Once I saw a dying woman who showed great fear as
          if she were face to face with an enemy who was out to
          treat her cruelly. She was speechless and her relatives
          tried to comfort her but, it was in vain. Perhaps she
          was having a foretaste of her unhappy future as a result
          of evil kamma.

          So it is necessary to do good kamma that will produce
          mental images of objects and persons associated with it
          and visions of a good afterlife at the moment of dying.
          If the good deed is rational, strongly motivated and one
          of the eight kinds of good deeds in sensual sphere, the
          resultant consciousness is one of the four kinds of
          rational vinnana. Rebirth is then associated with amoha
          (non-ignorance) and as such it takes place with three
          root-conditions (hetu) viz., amoha, adosa
          (non-aggressiveness) and alobha (non-craving). A person
          reborn with these innate tendencies can attain jhana and
          psychic powers if he practises samatha and can attain
          the holy path and Nibbana if he devotes himself to
          vipassana. Good acts that are motivated by the desire
          for Nibbana lead to such good rebirth and finally to the
          path, and Nibbana through contemplation or hearing a
          sermon.

          If the motivation is weak or if it is a good, but
          unenlightened deed, that is, a good deed divorced from
          the belief in kamma, the result is one of the four kinds
          of unenlightened (moha-vipaka) consciousness. The
          rebirth is then devoid of amoha (non-ignorance), there
          being only the other root-conditions, viz., alobha and
          adosa. It is termed //dvehetupatisandhika//. A man
          reborn in this way cannot attain jhanas or the Path as
          he lacks the innate intelligence for it. If the good
          deed is unenlightened and half-hearted, the result will
          be good rebirth consciousness without any good
          predispositions. The person concerned is likely to have
          defective eyes, ears, etc.

          So when you do a good deed you should do it with zeal
          and with Nibbana as your objective. If you set your
          heart on Nibbana, the good deed will lead you to it and
          the zeal with which you do it will ensure rebirth with
          good predispositions. It is not necessary to pray for
          such noble rebirth because you are assured of it if you
          do good deeds intelligently and zealously. But, if you
          lack zeal in doing good, yours will be a rebirth with
          only alobha and adosa.

          Some people say that dana and sila mean good
          kamma-formations (punnabhisankhara) which, being rooted
          in ignorance, lead to rebirth and samsaric suffering.
          This is a mistaken view that stems from ignorance. If
          the practice of dana and sila is motivated by the desire
          for Nibbana, it will ensure the noblest rebirth and lead
          to the supreme goal. It was due to dana and sila that
          Sariputta and other disciples of the Buddha finally
          attained Nibbana. The same may be said of
          paccekabuddhas.

          The bodhisatta, too, attained supreme enlightenment in
          the same way by praying that his good deeds contribute
          to the attainment of omniscience (sabbannutanana). Here
          rebirth with three good predispositions, viz., amoha,
          adosa and alobha involved in the genesis of Buddhahood
          is of two kinds, viz., consciousness associated with joy
          (somanassa) and consciousness associated with equanimity
          (upekkha). Again each of these two vinnanas is of two
          kinds, viz., asankharika (spontaneous) and sasankharika
          (non-spontaneous). The bodhisatta's rebirth
          consciousness was powerful, zealous asankharika.

          According to ancient commentaries, it was somanassa
          consciousness. For the bodhisatta wanted very much to
          promote the welfare of all living beings, he had
          infinite metta (good-will or loving-kindness) for them.
          A strong-willed metta is usually coupled with somanassa
          and, hence, the bodhisatta's rebirth consciousness was
          tinged with joy.

          But, Mahasiva thera suggested upekkha as its
          (bodhisatta's rebirth) concomitant. In his view, the
          bodhisatta's mind was firm and profound, thereby making
          equanimity rather than joy the characteristic of his
          rebirth consciousness. In any event, this
          rebirth-vinnana had its origin in his good deed that was
          motivated by the desire for supreme enlightenment. Thus,
          although the enlightened good kamma-formations
          (sankhara) lead to rebirth, it does not prolong samsaric
          existence; on the contrary it contributes to liberation
          from the life-cycle.

          Consciousness of any kind, whether it be rebirth
          consciousness or otherwise, is a matter of very short
          duration. It has only three points of time, viz.,
          arising (//upada//), being (//thi//) and passing away
          (//bhanga//). According to the commentaries, these
          mental units arise and pass away by the millions in the
          twinkling of an eye. The moment of each unit is so short
          that it does not last even the millionth part of a
          second.

          After the cessation of rebirth-consciousness there
          follows the stream of subconsciousness (bhavanga) which
          flows ceaselessly unless it is interrupted by a
          different kind of consciousness called vithi, that is
          the kind of mental activity involved in seeing, hearing,
          and so forth. The stream of bhavanga lasts as long as
          there is life, its mainspring being sankhara as in the
          case of rebirth consciousness. Its duration, too,
          depends mainly on sankhara or kamma. It may be like a
          stone thrown into the air. The stone will travel a long
          way if the hand which throws it is strong, but it will
          not go very far if the hand is weak. The force of kamma
          may also be compared to the initial velocity of the
          bullet, rocket, and so forth. Death means the
          dissolution of the consciousness that is born of the
          same kammic force. Hence the initial rebirth
          consciousness, the stream of subconsciousness and the
          last dying (cuti) consciousness of an existence comprise
          the mental life that is wholly rooted in past kamma.

          Also due the kamma or sankhara are the five kinds of
          vithi consciousness, viz., those involved in seeing,
          hearing, smelling, eating and touching as well as the
          mental unit that focuses on the sense-objects, the
          consciousness that reflects (santirana-citta) and the
          consciousness that registers (tadarammana-citta) the
          objects of impulse-moments (javana). These have their
          roots in original kamma that leads to rebirth or other
          kinds of kamma.

          The Abhidhamma pitaka attributes all kinds of
          consciousness, including wholesome, unwholesome and
          non-kammic or kiriya-citta to sankhara. This view is
          reasonable since the kiriya-cittas, too, evolve from the
          bhavanga-citta that is rooted in sankhara. But the
          doctrine of Paticcasamuppada specifically describes the
          three rounds (vatta) of defilements, kamma, kammic
          results and their cause-and-effect relationships. So it
          ascribes to sankhara only the 32 types of mundane
          resultant cittas that stem from kamma vatta. Of these 32
          cittas we have described 19 cittas that comprise
          rebirth, subconscious state and death of the other
          cittas. Of the other cittas some are wholesome according
          to the sankhara.

          In the doctrine of Paticcasamuppada, the first two
          factors i.e., avijja and sankhara are described as the
          causes in the past life, vinnana, nama-rupa, phassa and
          vedana as the consequences in the present life; tanha,
          upadana and bhava as the causes in the present life and
          jati and jaramarana (old age and death) as the
          consequences that will occur in the future life.

          Vinnana And Nama-Rupa

          The doctrine says that vinnana gives rise to nama-rupa.
          This means that with the arising of rebirth
          consciousness there also arise mind and body. Rebirth
          consciousness is invariably coupled with feeling
          (vedana), perception (sanna), contact (phassa), volition
          (cetana), mental advertance (manasikara) and other
          elements of mind relating to the objects of death-bed
          visions of a person. Every citta is bound up with these
          mental elements. The high (tihetu) rebirth of some
          Brahmas, devas and human beings also, involve the three
          noble predispositions of alobha, adosa and amoha; some
          devas and human beings have only alobha and adosa while
          the earth-bound devas and human beings with defective
          organs are totally devoid of noble predispositions.
          Their rebirth is a good ahetu-birth as distinct from the
          evil ahetu-rebirth of the denizens of the lower worlds
          who are also devoid of good inborn tendencies.

          Rebirth may assume one of the three forms: rebirth in
          the mother's womb, rebirth generated in putridity
          (samsedaja) and rebirth as sudden and spontaneous
          emergence of the full-fledged physical body (opapatika).
          Rebirth in the mother's womb is of two kinds, viz.,
          viviparous as in the case of human beings and quadrupeds
          emerging from the wombs with umbilical cords and
          oviparous as in the case of birds coming out of eggs.
          These living beings may differ in origin as they do in
          size and gestation or incubation period. We will leave
          it at that and now go on with the human rebirth as
          described in the commentaries.

          With the arising of rebirth consciousness there occur
          simultaneously three kammaja-rupakalapa or thirty rupas.
          These are rupas that have their origin in kamma, viz.,
          ten kaya-rupas, ten bhava-rupas and ten vatthu-rupas.
          The nine rupas, to wit, the solid, fluid, heat, motion,
          colour, smell, taste, nutriment and life together with
          the kayapasada (body-essence), rupa form the ten
          kaya-rupas; bhava-rupa and the solid, etc., form the
          group of ten bhava-rupas. Bhava-rupa means two germinal
          rupas, one of manhood and the other for womanhood. With
          the maturation of these rupas the mental and physical
          characteristics of man and woman become differentiated,
          as is evident in the case of those who have undergone
          sex changes.

          In the time of the Buddha Soreyya, the son of a
          merchant, instantly turned into a woman for having
          wronged Mahakaccayana thera. All masculine features
          disappeared and gave way to those of the fair sex. He
          even gave birth to two children. It was only when he
          begged for forgiveness that he again became a man. Later
          on, he joined the holy order and died as an Arahat. It
          is somewhat like the case of a man who develops canine
          mentality after having been bitten by a rabid dog. The
          sex freak who is neither a male nor a female has no
          bhava-rupa. He has only ten kaya-rupas and ten
          vatthu-rupas. Vatthu-rupas are the physical bases of
          rebirth, subconscious, death and other cittas. So at the
          moment of conception there is already the physical basis
          for rebirth consciousness. The three kalapas or thirty
          rupas form the kalala which, according to ancient
          Buddhist books, mark the beginning of life.

          This embryonic rupa has the size of a little drop of
          butter-oil scum on a fine woollen thread. It is so small
          that it is invisible to the naked eye. It does not exist
          by itself. We should assume that it arises from the
          fusion of the semen (sukka) and blood (sanita) of the
          parents. If we reject this view, it will be hard to
          explain the child's resemblance to his parents in
          physical appearance. It is also said in the suttas that
          the physical body is the product of the four primary
          elements and the parent's semen. Moreover, the pitaka
          specifies three conditions necessary for conception,
          viz., the parents' intercourse, the menstrual discharge
          of the mother and the presence of something qualified to
          become an embryo. Thus, it is clear that according to
          the scriptures, the embryonic kalala has its origin in
          the fusion of parents' semen and blood.

          The semen and blood dissociated from the parents are
          utuja (temperature-based) rupa but it is quite possible
          for utuja-rupa to assimilate kammaja (kamma-based) rupa.
          Modern doctors excise a lump of unhealthy tissue from
          the human body and replace it with healthy tissue. The
          graft is utuja-rupa when cut out from the body but, as
          it becomes one whole with the natural tissues there
          appears kayapasada or kammaja-rupa. There are also cases
          of transplanting a goat's intestine or a human eye in
          place of diseased organs. No doubt these transplants
          develop kammaja-rupas in the form of kayapasada and
          cakkhupasada. Likewise, we should assume that the three
          kammajakalapas are fused with utuja-rupas of semen and
          blood detached from parents.

          According to Western biologists, it is the fusion of the
          mother's ovum and the father's spermatoza that gradually
          develops and becomes a child. The original embryo is so
          small that it cannot be seen with the naked eye. The
          findings of these scientists fairly agree with what the
          Buddhist books say about conception. Without the help of
          microscope or other instruments, but purely by means of
          his intellect, the Buddha knew how life begins with
          three kalapas or thirty rupas as kalala on the basis of
          parents' semen and blood. This was the Buddha's teaching
          2500 years ago and it was only during the last 300 years
          that Western scientists discovered the facts about
          conception after long investigation with microscopes.
          Their discoveries bear testimony to the Buddha's
          infinite intelligence. However, they are as yet unable
          to reveal the genesis of thirty rupas probably because
          the extremely subtle kammaja-rupas defy microscopic
          investigation.

          Thus, the cetasika and kammaja-rupa are the nama-rupas
          born of rebirth consciousness. The kammaja-rupas are
          renewed at every thought-moment as are the utuja-rupas
          due to heat. From the arising of the first
          bhavanga-citta there also occur cittaja-rupa
          (consciousness-based) rupas at the moment of the arising
          of citta. But, cittas which make us barely aware of
          seeing, etc., cannot cause rupa. So cittaja-rupas do not
          arise at the moment of the arising of the bare cittas.
          Thus, with the arising of the rebirth citta, there
          develop in due course all other kinds of citta, that is,
          cetasikas, e.g., feeling, etc., as well as all kinds of
          rupa, to wit, kammaja, utuja and cittaja-rupas. After a
          week, the kalala becomes turbid froth (abbuda) which
          turns into a lump of flesh after a week. This hardens
          into //ghana// in another week and in the fifth week
          there develops //pasakha// with four knobs for hands and
          legs and one big knob for head.

          The Buddhist books do not describe in detail the
          development after the fifth week, but say that after 77
          days the four pasada-rupas for seeing, hearing,
          smelling, and tasting appear as do the ahara-rupas, the
          product of the nutriment in the mother's body. It is
          also said that the embryo has toe-nails, finger-nails,
          etc. The books do not go into further details as it is
          not necessary for the yogis to know them. Such knowledge
          is beneficial only to doctors.

          //Upapata// Rebirth

          For heavenly beings like catumaharaja and others, as
          soon as the rebirth-citta arises, there also arise 70
          rupas or seven different kalapas, viz., cakkhu, sota,
          ghana, jiva, kayabhava and vatthudasaka. Kalapas of the
          same kind are innumerable according to the size of the
          deva's eyes, ears, etc. There are no dasaka-kalapas,
          that is, ghana, jiva, kaya and bhava in the three first
          jhanic abodes, the three second jhanic abodes, the three
          third jhanic abodes, the vehapphala and suddhavasa
          abodes. The three dasakarupa-kalapas (cakkhu, sota and
          vatthu-dasaka) and one navaka-kalapa or a total of four
          different kalapas or 39 rupas arise simultaneously with
          rebirth-citta. Of these four kalapas,
          jivitanavaka-kalapa takes on the nature of kayadasaka.
          The body of the Brahma is pervaded by jivita and nine
          rupas as is the deva's body by kayadasaka-kalapa.
          Asannasatta Brahmas have no citta from the moment of
          rebirth. They have only jivitanavaka-kalapa which assume
          Brahmanic form. Being devoid of citta and cittaja-rupa,
          such a Brahma knows nothing and makes no movement. He is
          like a wooden statue. More wonderful than these Brahmas
          are arupa Brahmas who having no rupa live in arupa
          (immaterial) worlds for thousands of world-systems
          through the successive renewal of mind and its elements.
          These accounts do not admit of scientific investigation
          and they concern only the Buddha and holy men with
          psychic powers.

          The denizens of hell and the petas who are forever
          burning and starving cannot be conceived in wombs nor
          can they arise from putrid matter. Because of their evil
          kamma they come into being by materialization. Like the
          aforementioned devas they develop seven kalapas or 70
          rupas simultaneously. They usually do not have defective
          vision, hearing, etc., since they are doomed to
          suffering through sense-contact with evil objects.

          Sansedaja Beings

          As the sansedaja beings are said to have their origin in
          putrid matter, they are likely to develop gradually.
          But, the Buddhist books refer to their full-fledged
          materialization if they do not have defective visions,
          etc. We cannot say which is true, development or
          materialization, as the kammaja-rupas cannot be
          subjected to scientific inquiry and so for the time
          being it is better to accept the view as stated in the
          scriptures. The development of kammaja and other rupas
          in sansedaja and upapata rebirths are generally like
          that in gabbhaseyyaka (womb) rebirth. The only
          difference is that in the case of the former beings,
          aharaja-rupas arise from the time they eat food or
          swallow their saliva.

          Vithi-Cittas

          Vithi-cittas differ in kind from bhavanga-cittas.
          Bhavanga-citta resembles rebirth-citta in respect of
          objects and process. It is the stream of consciousness
          that follows rebirth-citta, having its root in kamma. It
          is focused on one of the three objects viz., kamma,
          kammanimitta or gatinimitta of the previous existence.
          It is not concerned with the objects in present life. It
          is the kind of mental state that we have when sound
          asleep. But there occur certain changes when we see,
          hear, smell, eat, have bodily contact or think and these
          changes in mental phenomena are called six vithi-cittas.

          Suppose the visual form is reflected on the sensitive
          rupa of the eye (cakkhupasada), these rupas, each
          lasting only 17 thought-moments, are renewed ceaselessly
          together with the visual objects and their mental
          images. A group of eye-rupas and a group of visual
          objects occur simultaneously. But, a rupa is not
          powerful at the moment of arising and so there is no
          contact between the eye and its object during the moment
          of bhavanga-citta. In other words, there is no
          reflection of the visual object on the eye. The bhavanga
          that passes away before such reflection is called
          atitabhavanga. Then another bhavanga-citta arises and
          reflection occurs. As a result, the bhavanga-citta is
          disrupted. Its attentiveness to its accustomed object
          wanes and it begins to consider the visual object. This
          is termed bhavangacalana or bhavanga in motion. Then
          another bhavanga takes its place but, it is so weak that
          with its cessation, the bhavanga stream is cut off. The
          mind becomes curious about the visual form that the eye
          sees. This inquiring mind is called avajjana-citta and
          there are five kinds of such cittas corresponding to
          five sense-organs. There follows the eye consciousness,
          and after its cessation, there arises the citta which
          receives and attends to the visual object.

          Bhavanga is the resultant citta that stems from
          sankhara, as are eye-citta and the receiving citta. They
          are called vipaka (resultant) cittas. There are two
          kinds of vipaka-cittas, viz., good and bad according to
          good and bad sankhara. On the other hand avajjana-citta
          (mental advertance) is ethically neither good nor bad;
          it is not a vipaka-citta either. It is termed
          kiriya-citta which means mere action without any kammic
          effect, the kind of citta that is usually attributed to
          Arahats.

          After the mind has received the visual object, it
          inquires about its quality, whether it is good, bad,
          etc., (santirana-citta). Then, there follows decision
          (vutthocitta), that it is good, etc. This leads to
          javana which means seven impulse moments flashing seven
          times in succession. Javana occurs very quickly. It has
          speed and impetus that are absent in other factors of
          the consciousness process. It is associated with
          powerful mental factors which may be good or bad such as
          lobha or alobha. No wonder that evil minds rush towards
          their objects speedily. Thus, greed makes us inclined to
          scramble for the desired object and seize it by force,
          and anger arouses in us the desire to rush and destroy
          its object blindly. Doubt, restlessness and ignorance,
          too, speedily associate themselves with their respective
          objects. The same may be said of good mental factors.
          Because of their frantic and impulsive nature, the
          sensual desires are also called kamajavana. After the
          seven impulse moments, there follow two
          tadarammana-citta moments. This citta is concerned with
          the object of javana and thus its function is to fulfil
          the lingering desire of its predecessor.

          In the consciousness process the eye-vinnana is
          dependent on eye organ (cakkhu-pasada) that arises
          together with atitabhavanga. Other vinnanas are
          dependent on the heart (hadaya-vatthu) rupa that arises
          along with other cittas. The 14 cittas from avajjana to
          the second tadarammana are focused only on present
          objects. So these 14 cittas are vithi-cittas that differ
          in kind from bhavanga-cittas. In other words, they are
          active cittas. After the cessation of second
          tadarammana-citta that marks the end of the
          consciousness process, the mental life reverts to the
          subconsciousness (bhavanga) state that is something like
          sleep.

          An analogy may throw some light on the process (vithi)
          of consciousness. A man is sleeping under a mango tree.
          A mango falls and he wakes up. Picking up the fruit, the
          man examines it. He smells it and knowing that it is
          ripe, he eats it. Then he thinks over its taste and
          falls asleep again. Here the bhavanga state with kamma,
          kamma-nimitta and gatinimitta as its objects is like the
          state of being asleep. Waking up with a start due to the
          fall of the mango may be like the rising and passing
          away of bhavanga-citta. Reflection after awaking is
          avajjana. Seeing the visual object is seeing the fruit.
          Santirana-citta is involved when the man examines the
          fruit. To conclude that it is ripe is vuttho-citta.
          Javana is like eating the fruit and tadarammana is like
          thinking over its taste. Reverting to bhavanga state is
          like falling asleep again.

          If the visible object is not very clear, it appears on
          the eye-organ after the arising of atitabhavanga twice
          or thrice. In case of such objects the vithi process
          does not last till the emergence of tadarammana but ends
          in javana and sinks into bhavanga state.

          If the visible object is still weaker, it is reflected
          only after the arising of atitabhavanga from five to
          nine times. The vithi process does not reach javana, but
          ends after vuttho arises twice or thrice. The vithi that
          thus ends in vuttho is of great importance in the
          practice of vipassana. For the yogi who practises
          constant mindfulness does not seek or attend to defiling
          sense-objects. So reflection is slow, avajjana is weak,
          eye-consciousness is not clear, reception is not proper,
          inquiry is not effective and decision is indefinite. So
          after reflecting twice or thrice the mind relapses into
          bhavanga state. The object is not clear enough to defile
          the mind and the yogi becomes aware of anicca, dukkha
          and anatta of the phenomena. There is only bare
          awareness of seeing and the vithi process is wholly free
          from defilements.

          The vithi process that we have outlined above for the
          eye equally applies to the ear, nose, tongue and body.

          Manodvara Vithi

          The mind vithi is of three kinds according to the javana
          involved, viz., kammajavana, jhanajavana and
          maggaphalajavana. Here, what matters is vithi with
          kammajavana. While the bhavanga stream is flowing, there
          appear mental images of the sense-objects that one has
          experienced or, sometimes, those which one has not
          experienced. Then bhavanga is disturbed and next time it
          is cut off. This is followed by reflection which is
          somewhat like vuttho (decision) in the five
          sense-organs. Like vuttho, reflection (avajjana) leads
          to javana, giving rise to agreeable or disagreeable
          emotions such as fear, anger, confusion, devotion, awe,
          pity and so forth. The impulses arising at the five
          sense-organs are weak and they neither lead to good or
          bad rebirth nor produce much other effects. But the
          impulses in the mind are potent enough to determine the
          quality of rebirth and all other kammic results. So it
          is necessary to guard and control these impulses. After
          seven impulse-moments followed by two
          tadarammana-moments the mind sinks into bhavanga state.

          Thus, the vithi process at manodvara involves one
          avajjana-moment, seven javana-moments and two
          tadarammana-moments. In the case of dim and indistinct
          objects, the mind skips tadarammana, passes through
          javana and reverts to bhavanga. If the object is very
          weak, the mind does not attain even javana but has two
          or three avajjana-moments. This is natural if we bear in
          mind the way we have to focus on mind-objects in
          vipassana practice. The only resultant citta in this
          mano-vithi is tadarammana, the other two being
          kiriya-citta, the citta that does not stem from
          sankhara.

          Follow-Up Vithi

          The mind vithi may involve the review of the
          sense-objects after rising from bhavanga state in the
          wake of the vithi rooted in the respective sense-organs.
          Up to this vithi the mind has, as its object, only rupa
          in its ultimate sense (paramattharupa). It is not
          concerned with the conventional modes of usage, e.g.
          man, woman, etc. So at this moment the yogi is not
          misled by appearances for he is aware of ultimate
          reality. He should try to contemplate immediately after
          seeing, etc. We, therefore, stress the importance of
          immediate and present moment as the yogi's focus of
          attention.

          If after this kind of manovithi the yogi is unmindful,
          there arises another manovithi in connection with the
          visual object, etc. Then the sense-object becomes a
          specific object of attention in terms of conventional
          shape and form. This vithi is open to strong but
          unwholesome impulses. It gives way to another manovithi
          where the attention is focused on conventional
          designations such as man, woman, etc., thereby making it
          more susceptible to stronger evil impulses.

          In the face of a strange, unfamiliar object, the
          vithi-process involves three stages, viz., seeing,
          reflection and cognizance of the form and substance in
          conventional terms. The vithi stops short of cognizing
          the conventional names. In the case of vithi that arises
          in connection with a conventional term, it involves
          hearing, reflection and cognizance of the conventional
          term, and awareness of the relevant form and substance.

          From Vinnana Arises Nama-Rupa

          Because of rebirth consciousness there arise mental
          phenomena associated with it such as feeling,
          remembering, perception, reflection, etc., together with
          the three kalapas or thirty rupas. After the cessation
          of rebirth consciousness, cetasikas (mental factors)
          arise in the wake of every activity of vinnana and so do
          rupas conditioned by citta, kamma, utu (heat) and ahara
          (nutriment).

          There is no doubt, about the close connection between
          citta and cetasika. When citta is active we feel, we
          remember, we think, there arise greed, anger, faith and
          so forth. Equally obvious are the physical phenomena
          that stem from cittas. We stand, sit, go or do anything
          that we wish to do. According to the commentary, this
          obvious fact gives ground for our knowledge that the
          rebirth consciousness at the moment of conception leads
          to three kalapas or thirty rupas. In fact, the arising
          of rebirth consciousness and rupa at the moment of
          conception takes place in a split second and as such it
          is invisible even to the divine eye. The divine eye may
          see what happens shortly before death and after rebirth,
          but it is only the Buddha's omniscience that sees
          death-citta and rebirth-citta directly. But, from what
          we know about the cause of physical phenomena, we can
          infer the arising of rupa from the rebirth-citta at the
          moment of conception.

          Some physical phenomena have their origin not in citta
          but in kamma, utu (heat) and material food, but without
          citta they will have no life. A corpse is lifeless
          although it is composed of utuja-rupas. It is because of
          the contribution of citta that the rupas based on kamma,
          utu and nutriment exist and form a continuous stream of
          life. Once death supervenes, cutting off the stream of
          consciousness, the cetasikas and living rupas cease to
          exist. Hence, the teaching that nama-rupa is conditioned
          of vinnana.

          Because of sankhara (good or bad kamma) there is an
          uninterrupted flow of vinnana in the new existence.
          Coupled with every citta is nama-rupa which arises
          ceaselessly. The duration of nama-rupa depends on citta.
          If citta lasts an hour, so does nama-rupa. If the stream
          of citta, flows for 100 years, we say that the life of
          nama-rupa is 100 years. In short, we should understand
          that life is only the continuum of ceaseless causal
          relationships between nama-rupa and vinnana.

          To sum up what we have said so far. Avijja causes
          sankhara. Because of the ignorance of the four noble
          truths people exert effort (sankhara) to be happy. They
          think that they will be happy if they get what they
          want. But, the objects of their desire are impermanent
          and so they lead to suffering. Not knowing the truth
          about dukkha, they think, speak and do things for their
          welfare in the present life and hereafter. These kammic
          actions lead to rebirth consciousness in the lower or
          the higher worlds. Beginning with this rebirth
          consciousness, there is a stream of citta that flows
          continuously until death, and the nature of this mental
          life is determined by kamma. The physical body too is
          conditioned by kamma as well as by citta, utu (heat) and
          nutriment.

          The physical phenomena as conditioned by citta are
          obvious for all our bodily and verbal actions such as
          moving, speaking, etc., are rooted in citta. The yogi
          has to practise mindfulness on the basis of these
          cittajarupas and it is important to know them
          empirically for himself. Hence, the Buddha's teaching in
          Mahasatipatthana sutta: "The bhikkhu knows that he walks
          when he walks and that he stands when he stands."
          According to the commentary, if we know experientially
          the dependence of cittajarupa on citta, we can know by
          inference the contribution of vinnana to kammajarupa,
          cittajarupa, utujarupa and aharajarupa. Hence, the
          teaching of Paticcasamuppada: Conditioned by vinnana,
          there arises nama-rupa.

          The yogi cannot know empirically the rebirth-citta or
          for that matter any other citta in the past in its
          ultimate sense. All that he can know is the reality
          about consciousness as it is functioning at present and
          he can know this only if he is always mindful. If he
          focuses on present vinnana, he comes to know nama-rupa
          fairly well. For, if he notes "seeing, seeing" and knows
          the eye-consciousness, he also knows the nama-rupa that
          is bound up with it. Here, by eye-consciousness we mean
          not only the eye-vinnana but the whole mental process of
          seeing (cakkhudvara-vithi). The yogi notes it as a whole
          and not by piecemeal. Moreover, the vithi appears to the
          yogi as a single unit of consciousness. This way of
          introspection is in accord with Patisambhidamagga which
          says: "The citta that focuses on rupa arises and passes
          away. The yogi then contemplates the dissolution of the
          citta that has watched the dissolution of the rupa."

          In other words, when the rupa is manifest, the citta
          watches it; but since the citta has attained bhanga
          insight, it too sees impermanence in the rupa and
          dissolves away. The dissolving vipassana citta itself
          becomes the object of contemplation. This vipassana
          citta is not a simple citta; it is composed of at least
          avajjana and seven impulse moments. But, these eight
          cittas cannot be watched one by one; the whole vithi is
          to be the object of attention.

          Here, the eye-consciousness means the whole mental
          process (vithi) of seeing and it includes good or bad
          kamma and impulses. So attentiveness to it leads to
          awareness of vedana (feeling), sanna (perception),
          phassa (contact), manasikara (reflection), cetana
          (volition) and so forth. But, cetana is more apparent in
          connection with thinking. Thus, it comes into full play
          when at night we think of what we have to do the next
          day. It urges and agitates us and its function is
          unmistakable. The yogi who constantly watches his
          nama-rupa is aware of cetana in action whenever he
          speaks or moves any part of his body. For example, if
          while practising mindfulness, you feel an itch you wish
          to get rid of, you note the desire and you feel as if
          you are being urged to remove the itch. It is cetana
          which urges you to do and so it is manifest in your
          everyday action, speech and thinking.

          In short, if you know the eye-consciousness through
          contemplation, you know the nama (mental) khandhas that
          are born of it as well as the rupas of the whole body
          that form its basis. This is in accordance with the
          teaching: "From vinnana there arises nama-rupa."

          The same may be said of the consciousness in connection
          with hearing, etc., awareness of vinnana means awareness
          of all the nama-rupa that are bound up with it. The
          awareness of contact is based on pleasant and unpleasant
          sensations when these sensations are manifest; it is
          based on contact when motion and rigidity are manifest;
          when you note the desire to bend the arm, you know the
          volition (cetana) behind it.

          When you contemplate the vinnana which thinks, you know
          the nama-rupa that is coupled with it. When you find
          yourself committing something to memory, you know sanna;
          when you note your intention to do or speak something,
          you become aware of cetana; when you note your desire
          for something, you know that it is your lobha. When you
          note your irritation, you know that it is dosa; you know
          moha when you note your view of a being in terms of a
          permanent and happy individual. You know alobha when you
          know the lack of desire in you. Moreover, your intention
          to do or say something is followed by bodily behaviour
          or verbal expression and so through contemplation, you
          become aware of vinnana-citta as the cause of rupas in
          the body.

          Vinnana and nama-rupa are interdependent. Just as
          vinnana gives rise to nama-rupa, so also nama-rupa leads
          to vinnana. Nama-rupa contributes to vinnana by way of
          simultaneous arising (sahajatapaccaya) foundation
          (nissayapaccaya) and so forth. It is only through the
          contribution of all cetasikas collectively or the body
          (rupa) as the physical basis, etc., that vinnana comes
          into being.

          Mahapadana sutta tells us how the bodhisatta reflected
          on dependent origination just before he attained
          enlightenment. He found nama-rupa, six bases of mental
          activity, impression, feeling, craving, clinging and
          becoming (bhava) to be the links in the chain of
          causation leading to old age and death. Then it occurs
          to him that nama-rupa is conditioned by vinnana and
          vice-versa. The sutta ascribes this statement about the
          correlation between vinnana and nama-rupa to Vipassi
          bodhisatta, but we should understand that it is a fact
          discovered by all bodhisattas before they attained
          supreme enlightenment.

          Although vinnana and nama-rupa are interdependent, the
          former is the determining factor and, hence, it is
          described as the cause of nama-rupa. In fact, when
          vinnana arises because of sankhara, its concomitant
          cetasikas as well as the rupas resulting from sankhara
          come into being at the same time. So vinnanas and
          nama-rupas arise together from the moment of rebirth.
          Moreover, vinnana and nama-rupa include the six ayatana
          (the six bases or sense-organs) as well as phassa
          (sense-contact) and vedana (feeling). But since vinnana
          is the cause of nama-rupa and nama-rupa the cause of
          salayatana and so forth, the Buddha says: Vinnana
          paccaya nama-rupa, etc., to distinguish between cause
          and effect. Likewise a verse in the Dhammapada describes
          the mind (mano or vinnana) as leading the cetasikas:
          manopubbangama dhamma; if a person acts or speaks with
          an evil mind, suffering follows him as a result, just as
          the wheels of a cart follow the ox which draws it.

          In point of fact citta and cetasikas arise together but,
          because of its predominant role, citta is described as
          leading the latter. If a man's mind is evil, he does
          evil deeds, utters evil words and harbours evil
          thoughts. These three kinds of kammas are sankharas born
          of ignorance. They become potential for evil kammic
          effect. Every deed, speech or thought is accompanied by
          seven impulse-moments that flash forth several times. If
          the first impulse-moments are favourable, the kamma is
          productive in the present life; otherwise it becomes
          sterile. If one of the seven impulse-moments is
          favourable, it gives rise to kammic images or visions of
          afterlife on death-bed and produces kammic effect in the
          next life. Otherwise, it is sterile. As for the other
          five impulse-moments, they produce kammic effect from
          the third existence till the last existence (the
          existence when Nibbana is to be attained) under
          favourable circumstances. It becomes sterile only after
          the attainment of Nibbana.

          Before the attainment of Nibbana its potential remains
          intact for innumerable lifetimes, ready to bear fruit
          when circumstances permit. It bears fruit in terms of
          suffering, both mental and physical, in the lower
          worlds. If by virtue of good kamma the person is reborn
          in the human world, he will be dogged by evil kamma and
          suffer regardless of his station in life.

          The Story Of Cakkhupala Thera

          The Dhammapada verse that we have referred to was
          uttered by the Buddha in connection with the story of
          Cakkhupala thera. The thera was a physician in one of
          his previous lives. He cured a blind woman and restored
          her sight. The woman had promised to serve him as his
          slave should she recover her sight. But, she did not
          keep her promise and lied that she was worse off than
          before. Seeing her trick, the physician gave her an
          eye-lotion that destroyed her eyes completely. For his
          evil kamma the man suffered in many lives and in his
          last existence he became Cakkhupala thera. He practised
          meditation as instructed by the Buddha with 60 other
          monks at a forest retreat. He never lay down while
          meditating and soon he had an eye-infection. He refused
          to lie down to apply the eye-lotion and so the doctor
          gave up the attempt to cure him. Reminding himself of
          certain death, the thera redoubled his effort and at
          midnight he became blind and attained Arahatship.

          To an ordinary observer, the thera's blindness may
          appear to be the price that he had to pay for the
          over-exertion of his energy. But the main cause was the
          evil deed he had committed in his previous life as a
          doctor. Even if he had not practised meditation, he
          might have become blind somehow or other. But the
          attainment of Arahatship was an immense benefit that
          accrued to him from his overzealous and strenuous
          exertion.

          There are two lessons that we can learn from the story
          of Cakkhupala thera. As an energetic monk, he continued
          to practise vipassana after he became an Arahat. As he
          paced on the ground while meditating, the insects that
          lay in his path were trampled to death. When the matter
          was brought to the notice of the Buddha, the Lord said
          that since the thera had no intention to kill the
          insects, he was free from any moral responsibility for
          their destruction.

          So we should note that causing death without cetana or
          volition is not a kammic act and that the body of an
          Arahat has weight if he has no psychic power or, if
          despite his iddhi he walks without exercising it to
          control his weight. Some Buddhists have doubt about
          their moral purity when they cook vegetables or drink
          water that harbours microbes. They should, of course,
          remove living beings that they can see. But, they need
          not have qualms about the destruction of creatures that
          may be accidentally connected with their actions. Some
          Jains are said to feel guilty over the death of insects
          that rush against a burning lamp. Theirs is an extreme
          view and cetana (volition) as the keystone of moral
          problems in the context of kammic law is borne out by
          Moggaliputtatissa thera's verdict in his reply to king
          Asoka.

          The Thera's Verdict

          When king Asoka supported the Buddhadhamma lavishly,
          some heretics joined the Buddhist sangha for material
          benefits. The true bhikkhus refused to have anything to
          do with the bogus monks and for seven years the uposatha
          service fell into abeyance at the Asokarama monastery in
          Pataliputta city. So king Asoka sent a minister to see
          to it that the bhikkhus perform the uposatha service.
          But the bhikkhus refused to comply with the king's wish.
          They said that the uposatha service was to be performed
          only by the assembly of true bhikkhus. If there happened
          to be a morally impure monk in the assembly, he had to
          be admonished and penalized for any infraction of Vinaya
          rules. The Sangha held the service only when there was
          reason to believe in the purity of every member; and
          they did not meet for the service together with
          non-bhikkhus. If they did so, they would be guilty of a
          serious offence.

          The minister regarded this reply as defiance of the
          king's order and put the good monks to the sword. The
          king's younger brother, Tissa thera, escaped death
          because the minister recognized him just in time. On
          hearing the news the king was greatly shocked and he
          asked Moggaliputtatissa thera whether he was kammically
          responsible for the death of the bhikkhus. The thera
          asked him whether he had intended to have the monks
          killed. When the king replied that he had no such
          intention, the thera said that he was free from kammic
          responsibility. The thera gave this verdict on the basis
          of the Buddha's saying, "Cetana (volitional act) is that
          which I call kamma." He also cited Titthira jataka in
          which the bodhisatta, who was then a rishi, emphasized
          the primacy of cetana in the operation of the kammic
          law.

          The story of Cakkhupala thera also shows that an Arahat
          who has no psychic power has body-weight like ordinary
          people. This is evident in the death of insects that
          were trampled by the thera. During the last 15 years
          Burma has produced some holy men who are reputed to be
          Arahats. Some women have reportedly tested their
          holiness by having flowers on their hands trodden by the
          holy men's feet. It is said that the flowers were not
          crushed and the hands not hurt. But an Arahat who has no
          psychic power or who does not use it cannot avoid
          crushing a thing if he treads directly on it.

          The reliable test of arahatship is to see whether or not
          a person who claims or is credited with it has craving,
          love of pleasure, attachment, anger, depression, fear,
          anxiety, restlessness, the tendency to speak ill of
          others, the habit of laughing loudly, irreverence to the
          memory of the Buddha and so forth. If he has these moral
          weaknesses, he is certainly not free from greed, anger
          and ignorance. If a thorough inquiry does not reveal any
          sign of these weaknesses, we may assume that he
          possesses the admirable attributes of an Arahat or at
          least the qualities of a holy man who is close to
          arahatship.

          Pure Thought And Happiness

          Just as an evil thought is followed by suffering, so
          also pure thought is followed by happiness. Those who
          think, speak and act with pure thought build up good
          kamma sankhara. Good kammas invariably lead to happiness
          in the present life and hereafter. This was emphasized
          by the Buddha in the story of Matthakundali.

          Matthakundali was the son of a brahmin who never gave
          alms. When he became severely ill, his father left him
          to his fate as he did not want to spend any money for
          his cure. He removed his dying son outside the house to
          prevent those who came to inquire after the patient from
          seeing his possessions.

          On that very day at dawn the Buddha saw the dying boy
          with his divine eye. He knew how it would benefit many
          people spiritually if the boy saw him before his death.
          So, while going round for the collection of food with
          other bhikkhus, the Lord passed by the brahmin's house.
          At the sight of the Lord, the boy was filled with deep
          devotion and shortly after the Lord's departure he died
          and landed in Tavatimsa heaven.

          Reviewing his past, he saw how devotion to the Buddha
          had led him to the deva-world and he saw too, his father
          mourning at the cemetery. As he wished to teach his
          father a lesson, he came to the cemetery and posing as a
          boy who resembled Matthakundali, he started crying.
          Questioned by the old brahmin, he said that he needed a
          pair of wheels for his golden chariot and that he wanted
          the wheels to be made of the sun and the moon. The
          brahmin pointed out the futility of his desire but the
          boy said that the objects of his desire were visible
          whereas the brahmin was mourning for his dead son who
          could be seen no longer. He asked who was more foolish,
          he or the brahmin. This brought the brahmin to his
          senses. The deva revealed his identity and told him how
          adoration of the Buddha on his death-bed had benefited
          him. He urged his father to seek refuge in the Buddha,
          the Dhamma and the Sangha and observe the five precepts.

          The brahmin invited the Buddha and the bhikkhus to
          morning meal at his house. There were present believers
          and non-believers alike at the feast. After the feast,
          the brahmin asked the Lord whether there was anybody who
          had never heard the Dhamma, never offered food to the
          bhikkhus and never kept sabbath and yet attained the
          deva-world through his devotion to the Buddha. The Lord
          replied that there were many such people. At that moment
          Matthakundali deva arrived with his mansion. He told the
          Lord how his devotion on his death-bed had landed him in
          heaven. All the people were much impressed by the power
          of faith in the Buddha that had so immensely benefited
          the young man who did not care much for deeds before his
          death. Then the Buddha uttered the verse:
          "Manopubbangama dhamma..." that we have explained
          before.

          According to the Dhammapada commentary, the brahmin and
          the deva attained the first stage on the holy path after
          hearing the verse. It is worthy of note that it was just
          the mere thought about the Buddha that led to the young
          man's rebirth in the deva-world. He did not seem to have
          any hope or desire for Nibbana. His rebirth as a deva
          was indeed devoid of intelligence but hearing a verse
          made him a sotapanna. These two verses from Dhammapada
          echo the Paticcasamuppada teaching that vinnana is
          conditioned by sankhara. For the verses say that
          happiness or misery arises from kamma sankhara, and in
          fact sukha or dukkha occurs together with vinnana.
          Again, vinnana implies the associated mental factors and
          its physical basis viz., rupa. Hence, the teaching that
          vinnana conditions nama-rupa.

          Nama-Rupa and Salayatana

          Nama-rupa conditions salayatana. This is very profound
          and hard to understand. Here nama-rupa means the three
          cetasika khandhas while rupa refers to the four primary
          elements, the six physical rupas, jivita (life), rupa
          and nutriment (ahara-rupa).

          Nama-rupa leads to salayatana or five physical
          sense-organs, viz., eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and
          consciousness. These ayatanas are the doors (avara) that
          lead to vithi process. In the immaterial world every
          citta-unit throughout the whole life is born of
          associated cetasika, but for ordinary persons this will
          remain bookish knowledge as it is to be understood only
          by Ariyas in the immaterial world.

          Further, in any existence like human life that has both
          nama and rupa, every vipaka-citta that arises from the
          time of conception is also due to associated cetasika.
          Vipaka-citta means the kind of citta that barely sees,
          barely hears, etc., the pleasant or unpleasant objects.
          Here, the seeing citta cannot arise by itself for it
          pre-supposes manasikara that considers the visual
          object, phassa that contacts the object and cetana that
          strives to see it. The seeing citta can arise only when
          these concomitant cetasikas arise, collectively at the
          same time. This is conascence condition called sahajata
          accaya in Pali. Thus, a load that can be raised only by
          four men working together will not move up if the team
          leader tries to move it alone. Likewise, although
          vinnana is the mainspring of mental life it counts for
          little by itself. It can function only together with
          other mental factors.

          Moreover, these associate cetasikas contribute to the
          five physical ayatanas, viz., eye, ear, etc., by
          conascence at the moment of rebirth. Of course at the
          time of conception there is only kaya or rupa. But in
          other kinds of rebirth that do not involve the mother's
          womb, there may be all the five ayatanas at the
          beginning. The conditioning of the ayatanas by vinnana
          and cetasikas at the moment of conception is hard to
          understand but we have to accept on the authority of the
          Buddha. At other times, vipaka as well as the non-vipaka
          cittas help to maintain the ayatanas. This is
          understandable since it is impossible for matter to
          exist without mind.

          Rupa And Ayatana

          The rebirth consciousness arises on the basis of the
          heart (hadaya-vatthu). The mind ayatana has its basis in
          the eye, ear, etc. Thought and consciousness too have
          heart as their physical basis. All the secondary
          physical phenomena such as the eye, visual object, etc.,
          depend on the four primary elements, viz., pathavi, apo
          (solidity, motion), etc. The five pasada-rupa, i.e. eye,
          ear, etc., are rooted in the primary elements and their
          kamma-based rupas in jivita (life-force) rupa. The five
          ayatana-rupas too depend on nutriment (ahara-rupa).

          To sum up, citta-vinnana is conditioned by at least
          three mental factors, viz., manasikara, phassa and
          cetana. Sometimes there arise repeatedly greed, craving,
          anger, illusion, pride, doubt, restlessness, worry,
          envy, ill-will, anxiety, fear and so forth. All these
          mental states arise because of unwholesome cetasikas.
          Similarly, there often occur faith, piety, moral sense,
          non-attachment, compassion, sympathetic joy (mudita),
          appreciation of the law of kamma, reflection on anicca,
          dukkha, anatta, and so forth. These mental states arise
          from wholesome cetasikas. Thus, the yogi realizes the
          dependence of vinnana on wholesome or unwholesome
          cetasikas, the eye-consciousness on the eye. So it is
          clear that the manayatana is dependent on nama-rupa.

          The mind is also vital to the existence of living
          matter. So the five ayatanas that produce sense-organs
          are dependent on the mind. The sensitive sense-organs
          (pasada) cannot exist without their gross physical bases
          just as the reflecting mirror cannot exist without the
          gross matter of glass. So the eye presupposes the gross
          matter of solidity (pathavi), cohesion (apo), heat
          (tejo) and tenseness (vayo); in short, the ability to
          see depends on the gross physical body of the eye. The
          same may be said of the ability to hear, the ability to
          smell, etc. Further, we can maintain life uninterrupted
          only because of life-force (jivita-rupa) and nutriment.
          All these facts show how the five ayatana-rupas
          originate with nama-rupa.

          The sixth ayatana viz., manayatana comprising thought,
          reflection, intention, etc., depends on wholesome or
          unwholesome mental states such as greed, faith and
          mental factors such as phassa (contact) as well as on
          its physical bases. It arises from its root viz.,
          bhavanga which in turn forms the basis for the
          mind-process (manodvara-vithi).

          SUMMARY

          To recapitulate: Seeing involves sensitive eye-organ and
          consciousness. The eye-organ depends on consciousness,
          life-force, nutriment and physical base. The
          eye-consciousness depends on the eye-organ and the three
          mental factors of reflection, striving and contact. In
          short, the eye as well as the eye-consciousness depend
          on nama-rupa and the same may be said of other five
          ayatanas.

          A thorough knowledge of the origin of the six ayatanas
          on the basis of nama-rupa is possible only for
          bodhisattas. Among the Buddha's disciples, even
          Sariputta and Moggallana did not seem to understand it
          comprehensively before they attained sotapanna. For, it
          is said that the ascetic Upatissa who was later to
          become Sariputta thera attained the first stage on the
          holy path on hearing the verse uttered by Assaji thera.

          The verse, ascribed to the Buddha, says that all
          phenomena (dhammas) are the effects of certain other
          phenomena which are the causes. The Buddha points out
          these causes and there is the cessation of the effects
          together with the causes. Upatissa and his friend Kolita
          are said to have attained sotapanna after hearing this
          verse, but they could not have reflected deeply on the
          dependent origination in such a short space of time. One
          may fairly understand the Buddha's teaching on the
          doctrine according to one's intellectual capacity but,
          it is impossible to grasp all of it fully.

          The commentary explains the verse in the context of the
          four noble truths, "All the dhammas is the effect"
          refers to the truth of suffering as having its origin in
          craving. The cause in the gatha means craving as the
          cause of dukkha. So the gatha epitomises the truth about
          suffering and its cause.

          In those days there were many views about the soul
          (atta) viz., that the soul was immortal and passed onto
          another abode after death, that it was annihilated after
          the final dissolution of the body, that it was created
          by God, that it was infinite and so forth. The gatha
          recognizes only the existence of the cause and effect
          and denied the immortality or annihilation of the soul
          and this teaching afforded the two ascetics a special
          insight into the nature of life.

          Visuddhimagga Mahatika identifies this gatha with the
          teaching on Paticcasamuppada. It refers to a sutta in
          Samyuttanikaya which says, "If this cause arises, then
          that effect follows. If this cause ceases, then that
          effect is also ended. So avijja causes sankhara, etc.,
          so there is suffering. With the cessation of avijja
          there follows the cessation of sankhara and so on until
          suffering becomes extinct." According to the Mahatika,
          the substance of this teaching is implicit in the
          aforementioned gatha, in regard to both the arising
          (anuloma) and cessation (patiloma) of dukkha.

          Mahayana pitaka describes this gatha as a sutta that
          sums up the doctrine of Paticcasamuppada. Any writing of
          the gatha is said to be beneficial if it is enshrined in
          a cetiya (pagoda). No wonder that many of these writings
          are found in very ancient pagodas.

          Both views in the commentary and Mahatika are plausible.
          For the first two noble truths imply Paticcasamuppada in
          respect of the arising of dukkha and its cause while the
          other two noble truths imply the doctrine in respect of
          the cessation of dukkha.

          To sum up the causes and effects in the chain of
          causation: In the past life of a person, ignorance leads
          to acts, speech and thoughts and these sankharas give
          rise to vinnana. Then there are five effects in the
          present life, viz., vinnana, nama-rupa, ayatana, phassa
          and vedana These effects in turn become causes or in
          other words, they sow the seeds for future life, viz.,
          craving, clinging and becoming (tanha, upadana and
          jati). As a result there are old age, death, grief and
          suffering in store for the future life.

          Paticcasamuppada is profound and this is borne out by
          the Buddha's saying to Ananda. Ananda reflected on the
          doctrine from the beginning to the end and vice versa.
          To him it was very clear and it presented no difficulty.
          He approached the Buddha and said, "Lord, this
          Paticcasamuppada is indeed very profound. But, for me it
          seems so easy to understand." The Buddha chided him,
          saying, "You should not say like that, Ananda."

          According to the commentary, the Buddha's words imply a
          compliment as well as a reproach to Ananda. The Buddha
          meant to say in effect, "Ananda, you are highly
          intelligent and so it is easy for you to understand the
          doctrine, but do not think that it may be equally easy
          for other people to understand it."

          Ananda's ability to understand the doctrine was due to
          four factors, viz., the parami (perfections) which he
          had acquired in his previous lives, the instructions of
          his teachers, his wide knowledge and his attainment of
          the first stage on the holy path.

          Long, long ago, Ananda was prince Sumana, the brother of
          Padumuttara Buddha. As a provincial governor, he subdued
          an uprising successfully. The king was much pleased and
          told him to ask for any boon he desired. The prince
          asked for permission to serve the Buddha for three
          months during the lent. The king did not wish to grant
          this boon and so he said evasively that it was indeed
          hard to know the Buddha's mind, that he could do nothing
          if the Lord was reluctant to go to the prince's abode.

          On the advice of the bhikkhus, the prince requested a
          thera named Sumana to arrange for an interview with the
          Buddha. When he met the Buddha, he told the Lord how
          Sumana thera had done a thing that was beyond the power
          of other bhikkhus. He asked what kind of good deeds a
          man should do to be so intimate with the Lord. The
          Buddha said that he could become like Sumana by
          practising dana and sila. The prince requested the Lord
          to spend the lent in his city as he wished to do good
          deeds so that he might become a specially privileged
          thera like Sumana in the holy order of a future Buddha.
          Seeing that his visit there might benefit all and
          sundry, the Buddha said, "Sumana, the Buddha loves
          solitude," a saying that meant tacit acceptance of the
          invitation.

          The prince then ordered over one hundred monasteries to
          be built along the route where the Buddha and the Sangha
          might rest comfortably at night. He bought a park and
          turned it into a magnificent monastery as well as other
          dwellings for the Buddha and numerous monks.

          Then when all was ready, he sent word to his father and
          invited the Buddha to come to his city. The prince and
          his people welcomed the Buddha and his followers, and
          honouring them with flowers and scents, led them to the
          monastery. There the prince formally donated the
          monastery and the park to the Buddha.

          After performing this act of dana the prince summoned
          his wives and ministers and said, "The Buddha has come
          here out of compassion for us. The Buddhas do not care
          for material welfare. They care only for the practice of
          the Dhamma. I wish to honour the Buddha with practice so
          that he may be well pleased. I will observe the ten
          precepts and stay at the residence of the Buddha. You
          must feed and serve all the Arahats every day during the
          rains-retreat as I have done today."

          The Buddha's Emphasis On Practice

          Incidentally there is a story illustrative of the
          importance the Buddha attached to the practice of the
          Dhamma. One day, the Buddha came out of the Jetavana
          monastery with the bhikkhus to go on tour. King Kosala,
          the merchant Anathapindika and other lay disciples
          requested the Buddha not to go on tour, but it was in
          vain. The merchant was unhappy because he would not be
          able to hear the Buddha's teaching or to make offerings
          to the Lord and the bhikkhus. His slave girl, Punna by
          name, said that she would ask the Buddha to come back.
          The merchant promised to free her from bondage if she
          could make the Buddha return to the monastery.

          Then Punna followed the Buddha quickly and implored the
          Lord to come back. The Buddha asked her what she could
          do for him. She replied that she had nothing to offer,
          but that she would take refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma
          and the Sangha and observe the five precepts if the Lord
          spent the lent in Savatthi city. Saying, "Sadhu - well
          said", the Buddha blessed her and returned to Jetavana
          monastery.

          The news spread and the merchant set Punna free and
          adopted her as his daughter. She was now free to do what
          she liked, free to shape her own destiny. For this
          reason and by virtue of her parami (kammic potential) in
          her previous lives, she joined the holy order. She
          practised vipassana and when she developed insight into
          the impermanence of nama-rupa, the Buddha exhorted her
          thus: "My daughter, just as the moon is full and
          complete on the fifteenth day, so also you should
          practise vipassana to the end. When your vipassana
          insight is complete, you will attain the end of
          suffering."

          After hearing this exhortation, Punna theri attained the
          last stage on the holy path and became an Arahat. The
          Buddha had of course foreseen Punna's destiny and it was
          his concern for her spiritual welfare that prompted him
          to cancel the projected tour and turn back in response
          to her appeal. This is an example of the high regard for
          the practice of dhamma that Gotama Buddha had in common
          with other Buddhas.

          So the prince observed the ten precepts and dwelt at the
          residence of the Buddha. He spent his time near Sumana
          thera, the special attendant and watched him serve the
          needs of the Buddha in a very intimate manner. Shortly
          before the end of the lent, he returned home, donated
          lavishly to the Sangha and, in his prayer to the Buddha,
          he affirmed his desire to become an intimate attendant
          of a future Buddha. The Buddha blessed him and the
          prince developed paramis tor innumerable lifetimes. The
          jatakas refer to many lives which he devoted to
          perfecting himself in collaboration with bodhisatta
          Gotama. Sometimes the bodhisatta was king and he was the
          king's minister or the bodhisatta was a human being and
          he happened to be a deva or Sakka. But their positions
          were often reversed. In some jatakas they were brothers.

          Thus they developed paramis close together through their
          long samsaric journey and in his last existence Ananda
          was the nephew of king Suddhodana. After spending the
          first lent near Benares, the Buddha went to Rajagaha and
          from there he proceeded to Kapilavatthu at the
          invitation of his father. When he left his native place,
          Ananda and some Sakyan princes followed the Buddha and
          joined the holy order.

          The parami (perfections) which Ananda had acquired
          through many lifetimes made it possible for him to
          understand easily Paticcasamuppada that has baffled so
          many people. Moreover, Ananda had received instructions
          from teachers. He had not only lived with his teachers
          but also learned and inquired about the meanings of the
          doctrine and memorized them. This kind of learning
          helped him to understand Paticcasamuppada. In fact, he
          attained the first stage of the holy path after having
          heard the sermon of the noted preacher, Punna thera.
          Ananda paid a high tribute to Punna for his illuminating
          discourse. The substance of the discourse is as follows.

          "Self-conceit arises from attachment to the body,
          feeling, memory, kamma-formations (sankhara) and
          consciousness. It cannot arise without the five khandhas
          any more than the reflection of a man's face can appear
          in the absence of a mirror. The body, feeling, etc., are
          not permanent. Since they are not permanent, you should
          contemplate and realize that none of the five khandhas,
          whether in the past, present or future, internal or
          external, gross or subtle, good or bad, distant or near
          is yours, is you or is your ego."

          "The well-informed disciple of the Buddha who thus
          contemplates and realizes truth is disillusioned with
          the five khandhas. He becomes detached and free. He
          knows that his mind is free, that he has done what is to
          be done, that he has nothing else to do for his
          freedom."

          This was what Punna preached to Ananda. As sotapanna,
          Ananda realized the cause-and-effect relationships of
          Paticcasamuppada. He had this insight when he practised
          vipassana. He knew that illusion, attachment, obsession,
          effort, rebirth, consciousness, etc., form the links in
          the chain of causation. Here, illusion or ignorance is
          avijja, attachment is tanha, obsession is upadana,
          effort is kamma. So when it is said that kamma leads to
          rebirth, we should understand that rebirth is also
          conditioned by upadana, etc. So the past involves
          avijja, tanha, upadana and kamma as causes. The yogi who
          realizes this through contemplation of nama-rupa is free
          from all doubts which we cannot remove merely through
          learning and reflection.

          As the best-informed disciple of the Buddha, Ananda also
          gained recognition of the Teacher in matters of
          knowledge. He usually accompanied the Buddha on
          preaching tour and memorized all the discourses. He
          could repeat a discourse verbatim after he had once
          heard it. As for the Buddha's talks given in his
          absence, he learnt from others and memorized them. The
          dhammas which he had thus learnt by heart are said to
          number eighty four thousand.

          Ananda was well-known for his retentive memory and the
          commentary on Mahavedalla sutta says that he could
          memorize hundreds of gathas in a short space of time.
          What with his wide knowledge of the teachings of the
          Buddha and his chief disciples, it is no wonder that the
          doctrine of Paticcasamuppada did not present much
          difficulty to him. Even today, given a thorough
          knowledge of the Pitaka, a man may understand the
          cause-and-effect relationship in the doctrine.

          The Abstruseness Of The Doctrine

          Nevertheless, the doctrine is abstruse in terms of
          effects, causes, teaching, and empirical knowledge
          (pativedha).

          In the first place it is very hard to understand
          sankhara, etc., as the results of avijja and other
          causes for most people mistake the suffering of
          nama-rupa for happiness. This is avijja and they do not
          know it as an illusion. They believe that it is their
          ego-entities that think, they do not know sankhara
          (effort) as an effect of avijja, but they think it is
          they themselves who make the effort. So it is hard to
          see good or bad deeds (kamma) as the effects of
          ignorance. More difficult to understand is the causal
          relation between this sankhara of the previous life and
          the rebirth consciousness of the present existence.
          Likewise, it is hard to understand that nama-rupa,
          salayatana, etc., are conditioned by vinnana, etc.

          Equally incomprehensible are the causes involved in
          dependent origination for people believe that they shape
          their own destiny. Some say that they are created by God
          or Brahma while some insist that everything happens by
          chance. Most of them do not see avijja, etc., as the
          mainspring of their existence.

          Again, some teachings of the Buddha on the doctrine
          begin with avijja and end with death. Some are set forth
          in reverse order. Some begin with the middle links in
          the chain and proceed to the beginning or to the end.
          These various versions of the doctrine add to the
          difficulty of understanding it.

          In order to gain an insight into the doctrine, one has
          to practise vipassana and realize the facts of causal
          relationship empirically. This vipassana approach to the
          study of Paticcasamuppada is by no means easy for the
          method must be right and one will have to practise it
          steadily and thoroughly.

          In spite of these difficulties, the doctrine seemed
          clear to Ananda because of his unusual qualifications,
          So the Buddha's words "Do not say like this, Ananda" may
          be an implicit compliment to him, but according to the
          commentary, the Buddha's saying may be an indirect
          reproach to him. It may mean in effect, "Ananda, you say
          that Paticcasamuppada is easy to understand. Then why
          did you become a sotapanna only after hearing my
          teaching? Why have you not attained any stage higher
          than the first stage on the path? You should think of
          your shortcomings. You are my disciple with average,
          limited intelligence and what you say does not agree
          with my words. It is a saying that should not have been
          uttered by a close disciple like you. I have had to
          develop intelligence for aeons to know this doctrine and
          so you should not speak lightly of it."

          Thus, after chiding Ananda implicity by a few words, the
          Buddha stressed the profundity of Paticcasamuppada.
          "Profound, Ananda, is this dependent origination and
          profound does it appear. It is through not understanding
          and not penetrating this law that this world of living
          beings resemble a tangled ball of thread, a bird's
          thicket of sedge or reed, and that man does not escape
          from the lower states of existence, from the course of
          suffering, from the round of rebirths."

          In other words, this law concerning the conditioning of
          vinnana, nama-rupa, etc., by avijja, sankhara, etc., is
          very profound. So people do not know that there are only
          cause-and-effect relationships and that there is no
          permanent being. They believe that a living being exists
          in a permanent form from the time of inception; that
          there is a permanent entity behind the being that
          develops and grows up. Some hold that this core or soul
          of the being has many previous lives. All these
          illusions are due to ignorance of the reality underlying
          the dependent origination.

          A living being's acts, words and thoughts are clearly
          due to ignorance of the four noble truths and dependent
          origination. Undeniably, good acts bear good fruits, bad
          acts bear bad fruits and everyone fares according to his
          deeds. So ignorance leads to kammas or sankharas which
          in turn give rise to rebirth, consciousness, etc. This
          fact is clear to an intelligent person.

          Because of their inability to understand dependent
          origination, living beings remain mired in the round of
          rebirths, wandering ceaselessly from one existence to
          another. By and large, they land in the lower worlds and
          pass on to the deva-realms only occasionally by virtue
          of their good kamma. When the good kammic effects run
          out, they revert to the lower worlds.

          It is hard for the denizens of the lower worlds to pass
          on to the human or deva worlds for attainment of the
          higher planes of existence is possible only when a dying
          person has memories or visions of his good deeds and a
          good act is simply unthinkable among the lower forms of
          life. Animals kill one another and the law of the jungle
          prevails in their world, leaving no room for love, pity
          and other spiritual values. They usually die stricken
          with pain and fear. So a lower being is very likely to
          be reborn in the lower worlds.

          Because of the ignorance of dependent origination a
          living being is unable to free himself from the round of
          rebirth. He is like an ox yoked to the mortar. No matter
          how long it goes round and round, the animal cannot
          leave the strictly limited area of its mobility.
          Likewise, the ignorant person is mired in the life-cycle
          (samsara) which largely means confinement in the nether
          worlds and for aeons he remains subject to rebirth.

          Understanding of Paticcasamuppada is as vital to
          spiritual liberation as the understanding of the four
          noble truths. In fact, the four noble truths are
          synonymous with the dependent origination. The object of
          vipassana practice is to gain insight both
          intellectually and empirically into these teachings, but
          these teachings are deep and hard to understand. Even in
          vipassana practice it is not easy to have clear ideas
          about avijja, sankhara, etc.

          The Buddha reflected on Paticcasamuppada before and
          shortly after his attainment of supreme enlightenment.
          For seven days the Buddha was absorbed in the peace of
          liberation (vimuttisukha) and on the seventh day at
          night, he contemplated Paticcasamuppada in terms of
          conditioning (paccaya) or cause-and-effect relationship.

          Having dealt with the first links in the chain of causal
          sequence, we will now proceed to phassa that is
          conditioned by salayatana. Salayatana means the six
          sense-organs and the six sense-objects, viz., visual
          form, sound, smell, taste, tactile object and
          mind-object. The contact between a sense organ and the
          corresponding sense-object is called phassa. It is an
          intangible phenomenon of mental life but it shows itself
          clearly when the object has an unmistakable impact on
          the mind. For example, we are shocked when we see
          someone being ill-treated. It makes us tremble when we
          see a man whose life is hanging by a thread on the top
          of a tree. Seeing a ghost will send the shivers, down
          the spine. Hearing or reading an interesting story often
          leaves some impressions that may remain indelible for a
          long time. All these show what it means when there is
          phassa or the impact of a sense-object on the mind of a
          person.

          The impact is occasionally very violent and gives rise
          to violent emotions and outbursts of passion, anger,
          etc. According to the commentary on Anguttara Nikaya, in
          the time of the ancient Sinhalese King Dutthagamani, a
          young monk happened to see a girl. The girl looked at
          him too and both of them were so much consumed with a
          burning desire that they died. Again an elderly monk
          became insane after looking unmindfully at the queen of
          King Mahanaga.

          In Mudulakkhana jataka, the bodhisatta was a rishi
          (recluse) who went to the king's palace to have his
          meal. He went there by air as he had psychic powers.
          When the rishi appeared suddenly, the queen rose to her
          feet in a hurry and her garment slipped. The queen's
          seductive pose instantly aroused the long-dormant sexual
          desire of the rishi. He could not eat any food. His
          psychic powers having vanished, he walked back to his
          abode and there he lay, afflicted with the fires of lust
          and passion.

          On learning what had happened, the king offered the
          queen to the rishi as he was confident of the holy man's
          ability to recover his higher self eventually. He
          secretly instructed the queen to do her best for the
          welfare of the rishi.

          Taking the queen, the rishi left the king's palace. Once
          outside the gate the queen told him to go back and ask
          the king for a house. He was offered an old house but
          there he had to fetch a hatchet and a basket for the
          disposal of excreta and filth. Again and again, he had
          to go and ask the king for other things that he needed.
          Going to and fro and doing all household chores at the
          bidding of the queen, the rishi was dead tired but he
          did not come to his senses as he was still dominated by
          lust and passion.

          After having done everything that he was told to do, he
          sat down near the queen to take a rest. Then she pulled
          his moustache with a jerk and said, "Are you not aware
          of your being a samana (ascetic) whose object is to do
          away with passions and desires? Are you so much out of
          your senses?" This awakened the rishi to a sense of his
          blind folly and ignorance. After handing back the queen
          to the king, he went to the Himalayan forest, practised
          vipassana and recovered his psychic power. On his death
          he attained the Brahma world.

          The moral is that even a person of spiritual calibre
          like a bodhisatta could not escape the fires of
          defilements. The rishi might have casually seen the
          queen before but the impact was not violent enough to
          jolt his emotional life. It was the clear, vivid
          impressions of the queen's physical appearance that
          harassed and engulfed him with the fires of lust and
          passion for many days.

          In Ummadanti jataka, King Sivi became almost crazy after
          seeing Ummadanti, the wife of his commander-in-chief.
          The woman was so famous for her beauty that the king
          sent his brahmin advisers to see whether she had the
          qualities of a noble lady. But at the sight of the woman
          they were so much bewitched by her beauty that they lost
          self-control and made a mess of the feast given by their
          host. Disgusted by their disorderly behaviour, Ummadanti
          had them hustled out of the house. Thereupon, the
          disgruntled brahmins reported to the king that she was
          not qualified to be a queen. The king lost interest in
          her and she became the wife of the supreme commander.
          She was, however, determined to make things even with
          the king and so when he went round the city during a
          festival she showed her beauty and charms to the best of
          her ability.

          The king was half beside himself with infatuation for
          the woman. Unable to sleep, he raved about her and gave
          vent to his blind passion in a gatha which says that if
          he were granted a boon by the king of devas, he would
          ask for an opportunity to sleep one or two nights with
          Ummadanti. The impact of a sense-object depends largely
          on the nature of the impression conveyed by the object.
          If the impression is vague and dim, it produces only
          mild feeling and craving, but much vedana, tanha, etc.,
          follow in the wake of clear and vivid impressions.

          The impact may also lead to outburst of temper. We show
          anger at the sight of an offensive object, and we fear a
          frightful object. Unpleasant words are irritating to us.
          Pride wells up in us when we think of something that
          boosts our ego. We hold wrong views when we toy with the
          idea of soul or with a teaching that makes a farce of
          kamma and its fruit. Objects of envy make us envious,
          and objects which we wish to possess exclusively make us
          miserly. These are instances of phassa that fuel
          unwholesome kammas.

          Wholesome kammas too arise from phassa. Objects of
          devotion arouse faith, those whom we should forgive or
          tolerate help to foster forbearance, and contemplation
          of the Buddha and the Arahats make us mindful, kindly
          and so forth. So Patisambhidamagga says: "Conditioned by
          phassa, there arise fifty cetasikas (mental factors)."
          It attributes feeling, perception and kamma-formations
          to phassa.

          We see because of phassa and this phassa occurs because
          of the eye, the visual object and the visual
          consciousness. The Buddha's teaching makes a distinction
          between the visual consciousness and the visual object.
          Ordinary people tend to confuse the former with the
          latter, but the Buddha stated clearly that visual
          consciousness arises from the eye and the visual object,
          and that phassa means the conjunction of the eye, the
          visual object and the visual consciousness.

          This is the impact of seeing for which the three
          ayatanas, viz., the eye, etc., form the three necessary
          and sufficient conditions. The nature of impact is
          realized empirically by the yogi who practises
          mindfulness. The yogi notes, "seeing, seeing" at every
          moment of seeing and as concentration develops, he comes
          to realize that seeing is not uncaused, that it is not
          made or created by a person; that it is a
          psycho-physical phenomenon, having the eye and the
          visual object as its cause and the visual consciousness
          as its effect.

          The impact on the sense-organ leads to feelings that may
          be pleasant, unpleasant or indifferent according to the
          nature of the sense-object. If the object is beautiful,
          there arises pleasant feeling; if it is ugly, we have
          unpleasant feeling. If the object is neither ugly nor
          lovely, the feeling is indifferent. This feeling
          (upekkha vedana) does not give rise to any comment,
          whether favourable or unfavourable; indeed it is not
          even recognized as a feeling but it is accepted by the
          ego. In fact, these three kinds of feelings have nothing
          to do with the ego or self but are aspects of the mental
          process stemming from sense-contact.

          To understand Paticcasamuppada means to be free from
          scepticism and illusion. Since this freedom is the
          essential attribute of the yogi at the first stage on
          the holy path, it is important to understand the
          doctrine. Ignorance of it tends to cause doubts about
          the Buddha, the Dhamma and so forth. There are eight
          kinds of doubts.

          (1) Doubt about the Buddha. This leads the sceptic to
          raise questions such as "Was the Buddha really a being
          who was free from all defilements? Or was he an ordinary
          man who commanded the blind faith of his followers?"

          (2) Doubt about the Teaching. "Are there the Path and
          Nibbana that really ensure the extinction of craving,
          hatred and ignorance?"

          (3) Doubt about the Sangha. "Are there Ariyas, the Noble
          ones who are really free from defilements? Sotapannas
          who, having overcome illusion and doubt, will never be
          reborn in the lower worlds? Sakadagamis, who do not have
          much sensual desire and anger? Anagamis, who are wholly
          free from sensual desire and anger? Or the Arahats who
          have freed themselves from all defilements?"

          (4) Doubt about the practice. "Is the practice of
          morality or contemplation beneficial and helpful to the
          higher spiritual progress?"

          (5) Doubt about the past. "Did I exist in the past? Why
          and how did I exist in the past? What kind of person was
          I in my previous life? Did I originate with the moss or
          did I come into being spontaneously?"

          (6) Doubt about the future. "Will I exist after my
          death? What kind of person will I become in my next
          life?"

          (7) Doubt about both the past and the future. According
          to the sub-commentaries, this doubt refers to the
          present life that is between the past and the future of
          a man's life-cycle. This interpretation agrees with the
          Pali text of Sutta pitaka which says: "Now there arises
          doubt as regards one's self in the present." Such doubt
          may raise questions such as, "Am I really myself? Does
          the ego exist or does it not exist? If the ego exists,
          what kind of being is it? Is it big or small? Why or how
          does the ego exist? Was it created or did it come into
          being spontaneously? From where did the ego come and
          where will it go after the final dissolution of the
          body?"

          These questions show that there are five doubts about
          the past, five doubts about the future and six doubts
          about the present. The yogi overcomes all these doubts
          when he is free from all illusions about the self or ego
          (kankhavitarana-visuddhi).

          (8) The last subject that raises much doubt is the
          doctrine of Paticcasamuppada that emphasizes the primacy
          of cause-and-effect relationship in the world of living
          beings. Is effort really due to ignorance of the true
          dhamma? Is rebirth really conditioned by kamma? Is it a
          fact that bad kamma is harmful and good kamma beneficial
          to a future life? Is there really a cause for every
          phenomenon? Is everything the outcome of the combination
          of atoms and electrons by chance? These doubts centre on
          causal links, e.g. avijja, sankhara, etc., and resultant
          links, e.g. vinnana, rebirth, etc., in the chain of
          causal sequence as enunciated in the doctrine of
          Paticcasamuppada.

          These doubts give rise to wrong views in the long run.
          The false beliefs that conflict with the dependent
          origination are rooted in these doubts. Speculations on
          the nature of life that are above one's intellectual
          level produce doubts in the beginning but eventually
          turn the sceptic into one who clings to illusions. Such
          scepticism and false views are due to ignorance of
          Paticcasamuppada. One who understands the teaching
          clearly harbours no doubt, let alone illusions.

          In the final analysis, a living being is a compound of
          causes and effects as are non-living things like the
          earth, the sun, tree, etc. The law of causation governs
          the universe leaving no room for creation or spontaneous
          occurrence. Modern science provides overwhelming
          evidence for the absolute dependence of the non-living
          material world on the interplay of cause and effect. It
          tends to bear out the truth of the Buddha's teaching
          about the conditionality of everything in the world,
          whether it be life, mind or matter.

          The Buddha laid emphasis on the conditioned nature of
          man's internal life. The teaching leaves out of account
          the external world of inanimate matter because the
          material world has no life-cycle and is not subject to
          rebirth and suffering. What matters most from the
          Buddhist point of view is the living being. If left to
          itself, the nama-rupa comprising the living being passes
          through innumerable lives and, for the most part, the
          individual suffers on the lower planes of existence, but
          if we understand the nama-rupa process and act wisely,
          we can make progress gradually on the way to liberation.
          Even if we are not yet liberated, we can achieve a
          better life and fare fairly well in the round of
          rebirths. A clear understanding of Paticcasamuppada is
          vital for it ensures complete extinction of defilements.

          We have described ignorance as the cause of effort
          (sankhara) and kammic effort as the cause of rebirth. It
          is necessary to say something more about the origin of
          rebirth consciousness. In a sutta of Anguttara Nikaya,
          the Buddha likens the wholesome or unwholesome
          volitional (cetana) action (kamma) to a thriving field,
          consciousness (vinnana) to seeds, and craving (tanha) to
          water for irrigating the field. The planting of trees
          requires fields and nurseries. Likewise, rebirth
          consciousness presupposes arable land in the form of
          kamma, kamma gives rise to the potential for rebirth and
          although the former states of consciousness disappear,
          the rebirth potential remains bound up with the psyche.
          Like a budding plant, it does not materialize as yet but
          it is bound to become actual under favourable
          circumstances, just as a man who has committed a crime
          is a potential prisoner or a worker who has
          distinguished himself in a state factory is a potential
          winner of government reward for good service.

          Furthermore, rebirth depends on wholesome or unwholesome
          consciousness no less than does a plant depend on seeds
          for its germination. The good or bad vinnanas arise and
          pass away, but they touch off a ceaseless flow of
          similar states of consciousness.

          These states are the outcome of former kammic vinnanas
          just like the transformation of a snake's skin. The most
          vital of them is the death-bed consciousness centering
          on one's kamma or objects associated with it
          (kammanimitta) or visions of future life (gatinimitta).
          This encounter of a dying person with signs and visions
          is called upatthanasamangita which means the
          foreshadowing of the future life as conditioned by
          sankhara-kamma. In a sense, it marks the transition from
          dying consciousness to rebirth consciousness somewhat
          similar to the development of a plant from a seed to a
          sprout.

          A seed needs water to turn into a plant. Without water
          or at least moisture from the air, it will remain
          sterile. In the same way, although kamma forms the basis
          for a future life, there is no rebirth in the absence of
          craving (tanha). So in the case of Arahats, although
          there are conditions for rebirth in terms of vinnana and
          the kamma that they have done as ordinary persons, the
          rebirth consciousness cannot arise because of the
          extinction of craving.

          Tanha is inherent in non-Arahats and it is most powerful
          in common people. It makes the sense-objects pleasant,
          attractive and desirable. It creates the illusion of
          pleasure, happiness and hope. It likes what is good and
          makes happiness and prosperity the main object of life
          for mankind. Tanha motivates the kammic consciousness
          which leads to other mental states. On the approach of
          death, these mental states give rise to signs and
          visions. The dying person delights in pleasant visions
          and he becomes lively and cheerful. This shows that his
          kammic seeds are beginning to sprout. He does not
          welcome unpleasant visions, but still these visions have
          something to do with himself and this self-attachment,
          too, leads to the germination of the kammic seed.

          Therefore in the case of common people rebirth is
          conditioned by three factors, viz., kamma (action),
          cittavinnana that is linked to kammic consciousness and
          tanha. Kamma as the fertile soil for rebirth is evident
          in death-bed visions and signs, the germination of the
          seed is shown by the dying person's interest in these
          signs and visions and one's self. So after death there
          arises rebirth consciousness as conditioned by the
          mental state at the last moment of the previous life.

          Rebirth consciousness brings into play nama-rupa,
          ayatana, phassa, vedana and their interrelations that
          concern the whole life. So in a sense, we may regard it
          as the seed of present existence. It is inextricably
          bound up with nama-rupa. All nama-rupa, whether in or
          out of the body, is suffering as they are subject to
          constant arising and passing away, but ignorance makes
          us blind to dukkha, creates illusion and attachment and
          keeps us engaged in the pursuit of sense-objects. This
          preoccupation leads to the renewal of existence.

          With rebirth consciousness as the basis of a new
          existence, there arise the physical body as its basis
          and the concomitant mental factors such as phassa,
          vedana, etc. When rebirth consciousness ceases, there
          follow other mental states in succession which may touch
          off good or bad kammas such as greed, anger,
          contentment, forbearance, etc. These mental states in
          turn lead to physical actions such as sitting, standing,
          and so forth.

          Hence the Buddha's teaching: "Cittena niyate loko..." a
          Pali verse which may be freely translated as: "The mind
          (thought, will, etc.) leads the world. It draws the
          world wherever it pleases. The whole world follows the
          mind." Here the world (//loka//) refers to the world of
          living beings. The mind leads the living beings
          rightfully or wrongfully. The mind of a good man who
          develops faith, morality, etc., will lead him to do good
          deeds. It will make him hear the dhamma and practise
          vipassana. It will land him on the higher planes of
          existence or bring him to the goal of Nibbana. On the
          other hand, the mind of an evil man will lead him to
          seek sensual objects and do evil deeds. After death, it
          takes him to the lower worlds and makes him subject to
          much suffering.

          This verse shows that all nama-rupas are dominated by
          the mind. It accords with the teaching of
          Paticcasamuppada that because of vinnana there arise
          psycho-physical phenomena such as phassa, etc. We have
          already given an account of phassa arising from the eye
          and now a few words about the phassa of hearing. As in
          the case of seeing, hearing also involves three factors,
          viz., the ear, the sound and the ear-consciousness.

          Hearing is impossible without the ear-organ and the
          sound. Scientists say that sound-waves travel at the
          rate of 1,100 feet per second. This is the natural speed
          of sound; the radio broadcast can carry it all over the
          world in a moment. When it comes into contact with the
          ear it is like the reflection in the mirror and the
          hearing occurs.

          But, it is a mistake to believe that it is the original
          owner of the ear who hears. The sensitive organs of the
          ear are in a ceaseless flux, the rupas involved are
          forever arising and passing away. They are like the
          ever-changing waters of a flowing stream. It is the
          contact of sound-waves with the stream of rupas that
          sparks the ear-consciousness. The consciousness occurs
          only for an instant and vanishes. This is followed by
          the citta that continues to focus on the sound, inquire
          it and decide. Each of these cittas occurs for a moment
          and vanishes. Then, there flash forth successively with
          much speed seven impulse-moments, after which there
          occur two thought-moments that focus on the sound.

          Such is then the consciousness-process involved in
          hearing. Whenever we hear a sound, the ear-vinnana is
          renewed on the basis of the ear and the sound. So the
          yogi who practises mindfulness realizes that hearing is
          conditioned by the ear and the sound, that there is no
          person or being who hears. In fact the yogi is more
          aware of the causal relation in hearing than in seeing.

          Thus, hearing means the conjunction of the ear, the
          sound and the ear-consciousness. The impact of the sound
          is phassa and it is quite clear to the meditating yogi.
          Some are so sensitive that when they hear a harsh sound,
          they feel like being attacked by a tremendous onrush of
          it towards the ear. Some may even be startled by the
          dropping of a leaf. The impact is evident when out of a
          variety of sounds that reach our ears we select and
          attend to the sound that we wish to hear. As for loud,
          harsh and piercing sounds, we cannot avoid hearing them.
          We may not look at an unpleasant object, but the sound
          cannot be so ignored.

          We have pleasant or unpleasant feelings according to the
          pleasant or unpleasant sounds that we hear. Songs and
          sweet voices are welcome to the ear while harsh sounds
          and abusive words are odious to us. When we hear
          ordinary sounds, we have feelings that are neither
          pleasant nor unpleasant. In such cases we may not even
          be aware of our feeling, the upekkhavedana that is so
          subtle that it escapes our notice.

          True, the Abhidhamma books deny that we have pleasant or
          unpleasant feeling when we have consciousness in
          connection with the eye, the ear, the nose or the tongue
          and describe it only as upekkhavedana. But for the
          contemplating yogi, it is not advisable to focus on
          eye-consciousness, etc. He should contemplate the whole
          process of consciousness (vithi) which involves pleasant
          feeling along with some thought-moments, e.g. santirana,
          javana and tadarammana and unpleasant feelings along
          with javana or impulse-moments.

          Moreover, even though the eye-consciousness, etc., may
          be upekkhavedana at the moment of their arising, they
          will be accompanied by unpleasant feeling if they happen
          to be the effects of unwholesome kamma as is evident in
          our contact with unpleasant sense-objects that cause
          painful emotions such as fear. Loud noise may make us
          deaf, evil smells may cause headache while unwholesome
          food may do harm to our health. Likewise, the
          upekkhavedana that is conditioned by the four kinds of
          pleasant sense-objects implies pleasant feelings. We
          enjoy seeing beautiful objects, hearing pleasant sounds,
          etc. This shows the pleasant character of upekkhavedana
          because of its being the product of wholesome kammas. In
          this connection the sub-commentary on Visuddhimagga
          says:

          "'The upekkhavedana which, being the full-blown product
          of low kamma, is painful and as such, it is of low
          character." In other words, the upekkhavedana that is
          based on unwholesome kamma may be indifferent and
          neutral but, since it stems from evil kamma, it is low
          just like the flower that blooms in a heap of excreta.
          Moreover, although it is not as worse as dukkhavedana,
          it is unbearable and so it is low. In fact, the kammic
          effect of a bad deed is never good or free from pain and
          suffering.

          Then, elaborating the function of vedana in the chain of
          causation, the sub-commentary says: "The upekkhavedana
          that results from unwholesome kamma should be described
          as dukkha since it is undesirable. The upekkhavedana
          that has its origin in wholesome kamma should be
          described as sukha since it is desirable." It is evident
          in the pleasant feeling that we have when we hear a
          pleasant sound. Sweet words are welcome to the ear while
          harsh words jar on it. The nature of some feelings
          caused by ordinary sounds is not obvious and such
          feelings are termed upekkhavedana.

          The three kinds of vedana due to hearing is distinctly
          familiar to the ever-mindful yogi. He knows that the
          dukkha or sukhavedana arises from contact between the
          sound and the ear; that there is no soul or atta to be
          affected by it; that the vedana arises and vanishes
          instantly, and that everything is impermanent. As his
          concentration develops, he becomes aware of the
          ceaseless arising and vanishing of all the three kinds
          of vedana.

          Like hearing, smelling is also conditioned. The smelling
          consciousness arises from the contact between the nose
          and the odour. It is impossible to smell without the
          odour or the sensitive part of the nose (ghanapasada).
          People without sensitive nose are rare. Once I met a
          monk who said that he had practically no scent even when
          he smelled a handkerchief moistened with perfume. Even
          when the nose is sensitive you cannot have any scent if
          you plug it or if there is nothing to be scented. The
          scent is detected only when it is wafted in the air and
          comes into contact with the sensitive part of the nose.
          Ordinary people labour under the delusion that it is the
          person or the living being who smells. In fact it is the
          contact between the airborne scent and the rupas of the
          nose in continual flux that causes smelling
          consciousness. As in the case of seeing and hearing this
          ghana-vinnana is a process that involves advertence
          (avajjana), impulsion (javana), investigation and other
          stages. The crux of the matter is of course the smelling
          consciousness which ceaselessly arises and vanishes,
          depending on the nose and the smell.

          We are all familiar with the offensive smell of
          something rotten or the fragrance of a flower. Common
          people believe that it is they who smell whereas the
          yogi knows that it is only a phenomenon arising from the
          conjunction of the nose, the odour and consciousness and
          he comes to realize the ceaseless influx and
          impermanence of everything. That is the difference
          between the yogi and the common people.

          Vedana (feeling) may be agreeable or disagreeable
          according to the nature of impact (phassa). Scents of
          flowers and perfumes cause pleasant feelings whereas the
          stench of the decomposing matter is offensive to the
          nose. The ordinary smells cause neither pleasant nor
          unpleasant feelings and this is upekkhavedana; a feeling
          that is so subtle that we do not notice it. The yogi
          notes the smelling consciousness and becomes aware of
          the three kinds of feelings, and their arising and
          dissolution

          Consciousness in eating (jivha-vinnana) arises from
          contact between the tongue and the food. Without the
          tongue or the flavour of food, there can be no
          consciousness of taste but, if the tongue is so
          unhealthy as to lack sensitivity, the food will be
          tasteless. Common people believe that it is a living
          being who eats and enjoys the flavour. In fact, the
          rupas forming the sensitive part of the tongue are
          forever in a flux and it is from the contact of these
          rupas and the flavour of food that there arises
          consciousness which involves the thought-moments that we
          have mentioned before. The events at this stage are so
          rapid that they seem to form a single thought moment.
          This consciousness (jivha-vinnana) changes at every
          moment, depending on the tongue and the flavour. It is
          this citta that knows sweetness, sourness, bitterness
          and so forth.

          The conjunction of the tongue, the flavour and
          consciousness means what in Pali is called phassa. This
          is familiar to everybody, but common people think that
          it is they as living beings who experience the flavour.
          Only the yogi who notes all the psycho-physical events
          that occur while he is eating knows it as a phenomenon
          dependent on the tongue, the flavour and consciousness.
          Later on, he gains a clear insight into its ceaseless
          flux and impermanence.

          Contact with flavour is followed by sensations (vedana)
          that may be good or bad according to the flavour. Eating
          good food gives us pleasure, we like it, whereas we
          complain of bad food or the bitter taste of some
          medicine. The feeling that we have when we eat some food
          is indifferent. Although this is upekkhavedana, the
          opportunity to eat is the outcome of good kamma. Hence,
          eating such food also has a pleasant aspect and leads to
          attachment, but as for the yogi with developed samadhi
          who notes the nama-rupa at every moment, he becomes
          empirically aware of the arising of all sensations
          (pleasant, unpleasant or indifferent) and their passing
          away.

          Another source of contact, feeling, etc., is the
          sensitive part of the body (kayadvara). It is said:
          "Body consciousness arises from the body or tactile
          organ and the tactile object. Body-impression (phassa)
          arises from the conjunction of the body, the tactile
          object and tactile consciousness, and the tactile
          impression conditions the (tactile) sensations
          (vedana)."

          This needs some elaboration. Seeing, hearing, smelling
          and eating - each of these physical events concerns only
          its respective organ, viz., the eyes, etc. Consciousness
          in connection with them also arises only in a certain
          part of the head. These psycho-physical events are
          restricted in terms of locality and duration. You are
          conscious of eating only when you are eating, conscious
          of hearing only when there is something to be heard. As
          for the body-consciousness, it is present in regard to
          every part of the body. You have tactile impression
          somewhere on your body at any time whenever you think of
          it. So its sphere is extensive and its duration is long.
          For the beginner in vipassana practice, contemplation of
          tactile impression is most important and so the yogi
          should know something about it.

          The fine, sensitive matter (rupa) that can receive the
          tactile impression pervades the whole body. It exists in
          every healthy part of the body and so it can give rise
          to tactile consciousness everywhere through contact with
          an external or internal rupa in the body. These rupas
          are impermanent and are in a flux from moment to moment.
          They are like the electric energy that passes into the
          bulb and gives light.

          In this state of ceaseless flux the sensitive body rupa
          that has not yet passed away collides with an external
          or internal rupa, thereby giving rise to
          body-consciousness. As in the case of seeing, etc., this
          consciousness involves a series of thought-moments,
          viz., citta that inquires the tactile object, citta that
          knows, citta that registers etc., but these cittas arise
          and vanish so rapidly that the tactile consciousness
          appears to involve only a single thought-moment.

          Body-consciousness is always present. It is not apparent
          when the mind is absorbed in any object other than the
          body but, if the attention is directed to the body,
          there is no doubt about the tactile impression somewhere
          as, for example, the contact between the body and the
          floor, the body and the clothes, and so forth.

          So the yogi who practises mindfulness in regard to
          physical contact of his body is aware of its
          conditionality. He knows that it is neither uncaused nor
          created, that it in fact depends on the conjunction of
          tactile object and the sensitive rupa in healthy
          condition. The object of contact is called photthappha
          in Pali and it is of three kinds, viz., pathavi, tejo
          and vayo.

          Pathavi element has the attribute of hardness and
          coarseness and this attribute is to be found if one
          examines or focuses on a part of the body that gives a
          clear impression of contact. Softness too is to be
          regarded as pathavi for softness and coarseness do not
          differ essentially. We call velvet a smooth object in
          comparison with many things that are coarser than it but
          it appears to be rough when it hits the soft part of the
          human eye. So softness and roughness are relative terms
          that differ only in degree, not in kind. Softness and
          smoothness represent solidity that is a mark of pathavi
          element.

          According to commentaries, solidity as the essence of
          pathavi element serves as the abode of other elements
          that have to depend on it just as all objects have to
          depend on earth. For example, rice-powder when mixed
          with water turns into a lump in which it may be termed
          pathavi because of its solidity or its predominantly
          solid character. The particles of powder are combined
          and held together by the water (apo) element. The lump
          also contains tejo element that is concerned with heat
          or cold, as well as the wind (vayo) element that
          supports stiffness and expansion. So this lump of rice
          powder contains all the four elements, and of these the
          element of solidity (pathavi) is the basis of other
          elements. All the other three elements are also inherent
          in the rice powder. Thus, just as rice powder is the
          support of water element, etc., so also the earth
          element is the support of its associated rupas. This is
          the function of the earth element.

          Thus, to the yogi, the earth-element appears to be the
          basis for its co-elements. This is its paccupatthana and
          so is of heaviness and lightness. In Dhammasangani, one
          of the books of Abhidhamma pitaka and its commentary,
          the pathavi element is described as heavy and light. So
          when you move a thing and feel that it is heavy or
          light, that feeling or idea is to be included in the
          paccupatthana of the pathavi element. The yogi is aware
          of the characteristics of pathavi element through its
          roughness, softness or smoothness. He is aware of its
          function when he realizes that it serves as the basis of
          other rupas. He is aware of its paccupatthana when he
          knows that other rupas lie in the pathavi element, that
          it bears other rupas, that it is heavy or light. Such
          awareness of pathavi element in terms of characteristics
          (lakkhana), function (rasa) and paccupatthana means
          realization of truth and discriminative insight into the
          nature of nama-rupa.

          As for the common people, contact with pathavi element
          is usually understood in terms of hands, legs, clothes,
          man and so forth. This way of thinking is wrong, but the
          yogi knows the truth through the practice of
          mindfulness.

          Tejo element means heat. It is evident when we change
          the position of the body, because we feel heated and
          pressed in some part of the body. Coldness too is a kind
          of weak tejo element. A thing is hot or cold relative to
          other things. The shade of a tree may be cool in
          comparison with the heat of the sun, but it is hot
          relative to the interior of a cave or house. The water
          in the pot is cool relative to that in the open air but
          hot when compared to iced water. Hot, warm and cool are
          relative terms that mean essentially tejo dhatu
          (element).

          Tejo or heat is essential to maturation and development.
          The function of heat is to make organisms mature and
          ripe. Old age and decay of trees, buildings, the earth,
          rocks, etc., are due to heat of the sun and it is the
          heat of the physical body that gives rise to grey hair,
          decaying teeth, wrinkled skin and other signs of
          senility. The greater the heat, the more rapid is the
          process of maturation. Tejo element makes the rupas soft
          and pliant. So as the yogi notes, "hot", "hot", he
          realizes its function, viz., to soften and loosen.

          When heat or cold is manifest in the body, the mindful
          yogi is aware of tejo element in terms of its
          characteristics. He knows its function (rasa) when he
          knows that it makes things soft and pliant. Thus, the
          yogi has discriminative insight into the nature of
          nama-rupa. He is free from the illusion that common
          people have when they think of tejo element in terms of
          substance and entity such as hand, man, woman and so
          forth.

          Vayo element has the characteristics of stiffness and
          rigidity. If you sit erect and stretch your back and
          introspect yourself, you will find rigidity. Again,
          stretch your arm and fix your mind inside the hand. You
          will find stiffness there. So if you sit and note
          mentally, "sitting", you become aware of vayo element in
          terms of its characteristics. You know it not as ego, as
          atman, etc., but as stiffness and this insight into the
          real nature of vayo is important.

          But initially the yogi's insight will not be necessarily
          confined to the reality of stiffness. Ideas of
          substance, self, and so forth, continue to obtrude upon
          his mind. For in the beginning, the average person's
          concentration is weak and he tends to let his mind
          wander freely. His mind is usually dominated by sensual
          desire and other hindrances (nivarana) that conflict
          with tranquillity and insight-knowledge and impede their
          progress. As a result, the mind is not confined to the
          reality of elements. Some teachers would have us believe
          that all conventional notions go by the board at the
          outset, but this is impossible. It is indeed hard for
          any beginner to be free from hindrances and pure in mind
          and belief. Exceptions may be made in the case of those
          who heard the Dhamma right from the Buddha and attained
          the holy path, but such kind of attainment is
          unthinkable for other people.

          Vipassana practice does not help to develop insight in
          the beginning. While contemplating nama-rupa, the yogi
          develops concentration strongly, thereby leaving almost
          no room for stray thoughts and keeps himself constantly
          mindful. It is only at this stage of mental purity that
          there arises the insight into the real nature of
          nama-rupa. Even so, conventional notions linger before
          the attainment of insight into the dissolution of all
          forms of existence (bhanganana). So it is said in
          Visuddhimagga that at the earlier stage of insight
          (udayabbayanana), the yogi tends to see "the lights,
          flowers on the pagoda platform or fishes and turtles in
          the sea." But later on, both the nama-rupa objects of
          contemplation and the contemplating mind are found to
          pass away one after another. Conventional ideas of
          shape, figure, etc., do not arise any longer. As
          Visuddhimagga says, "attention is fixed on cessation,
          disappearance and dissolution."

          Therefore, initially the yogi knows only the object that
          he contemplates in the right way. Rigidity (vayo) is
          evident at the moment of lifting the foot, etc. To make
          us aware of this, the Buddha says, "When he (the yogi)
          walks, he knows that he is walking." Here, the yogi is
          instructed to be aware only of the fact that he is
          walking; he is not told to reflect on the vayo or
          rigidity. This means that names are not relevant, that
          what matters most is to see things as they really are,
          that the yogi can note them in terms of popular usage.
          Again, vayo element is manifest in the movement of any
          part of the body. Awareness of rigidity in such movement
          or in the abdominal rising and falling means awareness
          of the real marks of vayo element. Looseness too is a
          mark of vayo for we speak comparatively when we refer to
          tightness or looseness of anything.

          It is also the function of vayo element to move,
          incline, tilt or displace. The yogi notes the motion of
          his hands when he bends them and becomes aware of the
          true nature of vayo element. He knows it also when he
          focuses on walking, etc. At such moments, he does not
          think of the object as man, woman, body and so forth. He
          is aware only of the gradual movement which means the
          real nature of vayo element. He is also aware of
          something pushing or leading another from one place to
          the other. Thus, he knows vayo by means of the
          phenomenon that appears on his mental horizon. This is
          awareness by paccupatthana which the scriptures describe
          as "Abhinihara paccupatthana" - the phenomena which
          appears as leading.

          All the three primary elements - pathavi, tejo and vayo
          are to be known only by experience. You cannot know them
          by hearing, etc. You can hear the sound of something,
          but you cannot say whether it is coarse or soft, hot or
          cold, rigid, stable or moving. Neither will its smell,
          taste or visual form tell you anything about its primary
          quality. Yet, it is a popular belief that we can
          identify the primary elements by seeing.

          No doubt a rock or a block of iron apparently gives us
          the impression of hardness, but this is not due to
          seeing. It is merely an inductive generalization based
          on past experience. What we know by seeing is only the
          visual form which sometimes gives a false impression as
          is evident when we tread on what we believe to be solid
          ground and stumble into a quagmire, or when we get burnt
          by handling a heated iron bar unknowingly.

          Nor can we know vayo element by seeing for it is an
          element that we can know only empirically. We see that
          an object is moving because we see it here and there,
          and the idea of its motion is only an inference from our
          observation of its displacements. Yet, when one of the
          two trains at rest starts moving, the other train
          appears to be in motion and to a traveller in a fast
          moving train, the trees appear to be running in the
          opposite direction. These optical illusions bear out the
          fact that we cannot rely on our eyes for the truth about
          motion.

          Once, an elderly layman who was interested in meditation
          told us about his dialogue with a monk-teacher. Taking a
          pillow and shaking it, he asked the monk, "Now, Sir,
          what dhammas do you see passing away?"

          "Well, I see the vayo element passing away."

          "Sir, you are wrong. What you see with your eyes is only
          the visual form. If you are mindful at the moment of
          seeing, you know only what happens to the visual form.
          You cannot know empirically anything about vayo element
          at the moment of seeing. Vipassana is a practice that
          gives priority to what is to be known actually by
          introspection. It is only afterwards that other facts
          are to be noted and realized by reasoning. It is natural
          to contemplate each sense-object only through its
          respective sense-organ. Vayo is an object that is known
          only through body-contact. We can know the motion of
          vayo if we introspect while walking, bending, etc. Now
          without being in contact with vayo, you say that you
          know its dissolution. What you say is unnatural and
          wrong."

          There is much truth in my informant's criticism. Instead
          of relying on Satipatthana and other suttas for
          information, some teachers give purely speculative
          instructions on the basis of Abhidhamma books that deal
          with natural phenomena exclusively. There are yogis who
          practise according to these instructions. The practice
          may benefit them spiritually but they cannot rely on it
          for the attainment of real insight and stages on the
          holy path. The only exceptions are a few gifted yogis
          who gain insights through speculative introspection.

          The best thing to do is to follow the Buddha's
          instruction in Satipatthana sutta and contemplate the
          psycho-physical phenomena that arise from the six
          senses. This is, as the Buddha says, //eka yano maggo//:
          "the only way". In the case of body-sense corresponding
          to body-consciousness we should note and recognize the
          body-impression when we are aware of any body-contact
          internally or externally. Otherwise the impression tends
          to dominate us in conjunction with avijja and other
          defilements. We tend to harbour illusions of permanence,
          happiness and ego-belief. Thus, through contact, we
          become attached to certain parts of the body, we
          consider them permanent and make distinctions according
          to our preferences. If we note every contact and realize
          their sensory, impermanent, unsatisfactory and
          insubstantial nature, there is no attachment and we are
          on the right path of vipassana that will certainly lead
          to enlightenment and Nibbana.

          Body-sensitivity (kayapasada) is a quality that pervades
          the whole body when it is in a healthy condition. There
          are many things such as clothes, air and others that can
          give the body tactile impressions. The body, too,
          possesses many things, e.g. hair, skin, that lend
          themselves to contact. Thus, there are always both
          external and internal objects of contact for the
          body-sensitivity. Reflection will point clearly to the
          possibility of contact in every part of the body and
          there is no place, however small, that does not admit of
          contact, and this contact gives rise to
          body-consciousness.

          From the conjunction of the body-sensitivity, object of
          contact and body-consciousness, there arises impression
          (phassa) that is very obvious. Pleasant impression of
          contact gives rise to pleasant feeling while unpleasant
          impression results in painful feeling. The deeper the
          impression the more intense is the feeling.

          Relation between Manodvara And Vinnana, Etc.

          Manovinnana that thinks, conceives and cognizes has its
          origin in the mind and mind-objects. The mind which
          forms its basis is the bhavanga-citta that we have from
          the moment of conception. It occurs ceaselessly
          according to kamma. It is the basis for perception and
          cognition. When we sleep or when the mind is otherwise
          occupied, our mental life is all bhavanga-citta. It
          becomes active in the face of mind-objects and there
          arise intention and cognition. So we can think and know
          only on the basis of bhavanga. True, this citta is
          always present in the absence of intention and cognition
          but bhavanga can lead to mental events only when it is
          strong.

          At times we cannot think because we are drowsy or our
          thinking may be futile, in spite of our effort, and this
          is due to weakness of bhavanga. Thus, bhavanga by itself
          serves little purpose. It becomes active only when it is
          in contact with a new sense-object. Hence, it is called
          bhavangacalana, active bhavanga or bhavanga-paccheda,
          bhavanga with its stream cut off. This last bhavanga
          gives rise to intention and cognition. According to the
          commentaries, avajjana (advertence of the mind towards
          the object) is also to be considered the basis for
          mental activity. Avajjana forms the first stage in the
          consciousness-process. It arises as the inquiring state
          of mind in regard to the object. If it is alert and
          sharp, it is mindful of all the essential facts and
          objects.

          The good writer considers the important facts for his
          book and the good speaker chooses appropriate words for
          his speech, thereby making their writings and speeches
          perfect. Further, this avajjana leads to good or bad
          kammic consciousness accordingly as it is bent on good
          or bad objectives. It is open to introspection and
          cognition since we can know actually that intention and
          awareness arise from avajjana. So the words: "mananja -
          mind as the basis" should be understood as reference
          also to avajjana.

          Equally vital to mental activity is the mind-object. The
          object always arises when we reflect. In the absence of
          mind-objects mental activity is impossible. Thus,
          sometimes we wish to think but have to give up thinking
          because we cannot recall the essential facts or objects.

          Hence, mental activity depends on the conjunction of the
          mind (bhavanga), inquiring mind (avajjana) and the
          mind-objects.

          According to the commentaries, the heart forms the
          physical basis of all mental events. But today Western
          doctors have removed the diseased heart of a patient and
          replaced it with a good substitute. The experiment was
          not a complete success but the press reports say that
          the transplanted heart functioned for a few days. This
          news may raise doubts about the role of the heart in the
          mental life of mankind.

          This question admits of two explanations. Although the
          heart is removed, its potency may not become extinct and
          bhavanga-citta may still linger in its place just like
          the tail of a house-lizard that moves after it has been
          cut off. Moreover, the bhavanga-citta may become active
          again when the transplant gets a new lease of life from
          the blood of the body, just as the new tissue or new eye
          ball that is engrafted has new sensitivity. Or, we can
          dispose of the question on the basis of Abhidhamma
          pitaka, for Patthana, one of the Abhidhamma books,
          describes the physical basis of manovinnana (mind)
          simply as "that physical organ which conditions the mind
          as its basis." It does not specifically mention any
          organ or part of the body. Thus, according to this
          canonical book, we may assume that a certain part of the
          body is the seat of the mind, perhaps it is a certain
          part of the heart or the head. Those who do not wish to
          locate the mind in the heart may regard the head as its
          physical basis.

          Here, we must mention the analogy of the spider and the
          evolution of mind as set forth in the commentary on
          Abhidhamma pitaka. The spider builds a web which is a
          kind of net for catching flies. It can do so
          instinctively in a matter of days after its birth
          whereas by contrast even a year-old child can do nothing
          for himself. The spider waits in the center of its web,
          eats up any creature that gets entangled there and
          returns to its abode. In the same way, the bhavanga or
          mano-vinnana has the heart as its abode and like the
          threads of the spider's web connecting its abode and its
          surroundings, the blood pumped by the heart flows
          through the blood-vessels and spreads all over the body.
          So the visual image in the eye stirs the bhavanga-citta
          in the heart and turns it into eye-consciousness and so
          on through its process (vithi). It (bhavanga) then turns
          back to its original seat. The same may be said of
          sound, smell, etc., with their respective sense-organs.

          It is now clear that bhavanga, together with its
          original activity, that is, thinking and knowing, forms
          the mainspring of our mental life. When there is a
          visual object, the eye-consciousness arises with the eye
          as its basis and then the manovinnana reflects on it.
          The same is true of the ear-consciousness, etc., with
          the ear, the nose and the tongue as their bases. As for
          the body-consciousness, its sphere is extensive as it
          depends on the size of the body.

          When the sense-objects are not apparent, the
          mano-vinnana or the mind that comprises thinking and
          knowing holds sway over the mental life. Sometimes we
          are so much absorbed in thought that we remain unmindful
          of all sense-objects. Preoccupation with an important
          matter may even make us sleepless. We are then dominated
          by thoughts that arise ceaselessly one after another on
          the basis of mental activity as conditioned by bhavanga,
          avajjana and mind-objects. To the yogi who notes every
          thought as it arises, these thoughts will appear to
          arise and vanish separately in fragments.

          Every mental event depends on the conjunction of mind,
          mind-object and cognition. This is followed by contact
          with mental images. These images, which may be real or
          unreal, existent or non-existent, are present in
          imagination whenever we think or intend to do something.
          This is familiar to those who have read, for example,
          the jataka stories. Reading these stories give rise to
          mental images of cities and kings that are coloured by
          Burmese beliefs and traditions. They are far from
          historical truth for since the stories have their origin
          in India, people and places described in the jatakas
          must have conformed to the Indian culture and way of
          life.

          Modern novels evoke images of towns, villages, men,
          women, criminals and so forth. The reader knows that all
          these are purely fictitious and imaginary and yet while
          he is reading, they appear as real and, hence, the
          delight, sorrow and other emotions that a good story
          arouses in him. All this is due to contact with mental
          images.

          As the Buddha says in Brahmajala sutta, "these teachings
          and beliefs stem from vivid imagination that makes them
          clear and real." In short, vivid imagination is
          necessary when we speak, write, hold a belief or think
          or just let the mind wander freely.

          Imagination leads to feeling. Pleasant images cause
          pleasant feeling as do, for example, images related to
          our past affluence or the prospect of becoming affluent
          in future. On the other hand, unpleasant images make us
          unhappy. To think of the past suffering is to revive
          unpleasant memories and equally unpleasant is the
          anticipation of the troubles and arisings that might
          beset us in future. The cause of such unpleasantness may
          be purely imaginary as in the case of the people who
          grieved over the reported death of a relative only to
          learn later that he was still alive.

          The image that is neither pleasant nor unpleasant will
          give rise to neutral (upekkha) feeling. We are then
          neither happy nor unhappy. Indeed we have the impression
          of having no feeling at all, but this indicates simply
          the subtle nature of upekkhavedana which, according to
          the commentaries., is to be known by the analogy of the
          tracks of the deer.

          When a deer runs across a large rock, the track is lost
          since the animal leaves no footprints on it, but if the
          footprints are to be found on both sides of the rock, we
          conclude that the deer has run across the rock.
          Likewise, the yogi is well aware of the pleasant or
          unpleasant feelings. When he has upekkhavedana he does
          not notice it and is mindful only of seeing, hearing and
          so forth. But after that, he has again pleasant or
          unpleasant feeling and so he concludes that he has had
          neutral (upekkha) feeling while being mindful of
          ordinary mental events.

          So the Buddha says: "Conditioned by the mind and
          mind-object manovinnana arises; the conjunction of mind,
          mind-object and manovinnana leads to sense-contact and,
          because of sense-contact, there is feeling."

          This is purely a process of cause-and-effect
          relationship that has nothing to do with a being, ego,
          creator or any happening by chance. By the Pali word
          "dhamma", the teaching refers to the five sense-objects
          as well as the imagined objects. The five sense-objects
          again become the focus of mental activity. So
          manovinnana involves all the six sense-objects, that is,
          what one has seen, heard, etc., and what one has not
          seen, not heard, etc. Every sense-object leads to
          sense-contact which in turn gives rise to feeling.

          For common people, these mental events are bound up with
          the idea of ego, self or atta. Such an idea is an
          illusion irrelevant to the chain of causation. This is
          empirically realized by the mindful yogi. He notes every
          mental event, traces its cause and becomes aware of the
          bhavanga and avajjana as well as the mind-object. So he
          knows empirically that every mental event means only the
          interrelation of cause and effect, leaving no room for
          ego, creator or chance.

          He knows too that mental activity leads to sense-contact
          which in turn gives rise to feeling. His knowledge is
          not bookish but empirical. He follows and notes every
          mental event. If his mind wanders to his home while he
          is meditating at a retreat, he directs his attention to
          it and there is the contact between his mind and its
          object, viz., the image of the house. In the same way,
          contacts with Shwedagon pagoda or a foreign country
          occur when he notes and follows the corresponding
          thoughts that distract his mind. This contact with
          mind-objects is phassa. 

          Equally clear to the yogi is the feeling that results
          from sense-contact. While practising meditation, he
          feels delighted when he happens to think of something
          that pleases him; sorry when the thought about a sad
          event occurs to him; inclined to laugh when he thinks of
          something ludicrous. So he knows that feeling is merely
          the outcome of sense-contact. But the insight of the
          yogi who notes nama-rupa at every moment of their
          arising is deeper than this knowledge of the origin of
          feeling. For as he develops concentration and
          tranquillity (samadhi), he finds that every object of
          his introspection as well as its subject, that is,
          consciousness, passes away. So he gains a clear insight
          into the impermanence of all mental events, viz.,
          thinking, feeling, etc., their unsatisfactoriness and
          unreliability and their impersonal and insubstantial
          character. Such insight means the empirical realization
          and appreciation of the Paticcasamuppada or dependent
          origination.

          Recapitulation

          In the first part of the discourse we have explained the
          links in the chain of causation up to the vedana
          (feeling) which arises from phassa (sense-contact). To
          sum up what we have said so far.

          Avijja is ignorance of the four noble truths. It makes
          ordinary people blind to the impermanence and
          insubstantiality of sense-objects. So they think, speak
          and act in the hope of securing happiness in the present
          life or hereafter. These deeds in thought, word or
          bodily actions are either wholesome or unwholesome and
          they are also called sankharas (kamma-formation).

          The sankharas give rise to new existence. The dying
          person has flashbacks of his kammic deeds and visions of
          future life that impress him and condition his new
          consciousness in a new life. In the absence of any
          special object that concerns the new consciousness, the
          latter occurs repeatedly with the death-bed impression
          of his previous life as its object.

          This bhavanga-citta becomes active at the moment of
          seeing, etc. Then, there arises eye-consciousness that
          is dependent on the eye and visual form. It is part of
          the state of consciousness, that is, the whole mental
          life as conditioned by sankhara. What we see, hear,
          etc., may be pleasant or unpleasant and the
          corresponding nature of eye-consciousness,
          ear-consciousness, etc., is due to the ethical character
          of our past deeds, that is the wholesomeness or
          unwholesomeness of the kammas in the past existence.

          This applies to all of the six types of consciousness
          that arise from six sense-objects. The last type of
          consciousness, implicit in mental activity comprising
          thinking, imagining, willing, etc., is dependent on
          bhavanga-citta, avajjana-citta (mental advertence), the
          physical basis and the mental image. This mental
          activity (manovinnana) involves seven thought-moments
          (javana) and two other thought-moments (tadarammana).
          Here tadarammana is the product of good or bad kamma.
          Javana is not such a product, but in Abhidhamma it is
          labelled sankhara-based vinnana in that it arises from
          bhavanga, the product of sankhara.

          Together with the arising of vinnana, there also arises
          other concomitant psycho-physical phenomena (cetasika
          and rupas). Thus vinnana leads to nama-rupa, but vinnana
          is followed also by the six ayatana (sense-organs) and
          six phassa (sense-impressions). Phassa means the
          conjunction of the mind, the mind-object and the
          sense-organ. It gives rise to vedana (feeling) which may
          be pleasant or unpleasant or neither pleasant nor
          unpleasant. The last kind of feeling which is called
          upekkhavedana, gives us the impression of the absence of
          any feeling, but according to Abhidhamma, it is in fact
          a kind of subtle pleasure that implies only the absence
          of unbearable pain.

          Vedana Leads To Tanha

          Because of pleasant or unpleasant feeling, there arises
          tanha. Tanha means perpetual craving or hunger. It
          craves for sensual objects that it does not have or it
          craves for more of the objects that it already has. It
          knows no satiety or satisfaction. For all the sensual
          objects to gratify it, its hunger is insatiable.

          So a deva said that devas are like petas in that just as
          the petas are very hungry because of lack of anything to
          eat or drink in their realm, so also devas are always
          hungry although they indulge in all kinds of sensual
          pleasure. This sounds quite plausible. For the life-span
          of a Tavatimsa deva means millions of years on earth and
          the life is still longer in other higher deva-worlds
          such as Yama, Nimmanarati. Yet, in spite of their
          ceaseless and fabulously lifelong enjoyment of pleasure,
          the devas are never satisfied because their tanha is
          insatiable.

          The same is true of human beings. Poor people seek
          sensual pleasure to the best of their ability. Of
          course, because of their poverty, they can never fulfil
          all their desires but equally insatiable is the craving
          of the rich, the high officials and the upper crust of
          society. This is due to the nature of tanha. The more it
          is fed, the more hungry it becomes and so it is worse
          among the rich than among the poor, more oppressive in
          wealthy countries than in poor countries.

          Six Kinds Of Tanha

          Tanha is never tired of seeing pleasant objects, man or
          woman whom it likes. It seeks sweet sounds. It hungers
          for good scent, good food and good drinks. It craves for
          tactile sensation and this is surely the worst craving
          for people who love sensual pleasure. Tanha also means
          liking for mind-objects that are impervious to the eye,
          the ear and other physical organs. It is the object that
          we can know only mentally. According to the scriptures
          it means the five sensitive (pasada) rupas, the four
          subtle elements such as apo, etc., the mental elements
          (cetasikas) concepts of forms, qualities, names, etc.

          People crave for good pasada-rupas because they want to
          see clearly, to hear distinctly, or to have keen sense
          of touch. They seek apo elements as they wish to keep
          their mouth, throat and skin moist. They delight in the
          consciousness of their own sex and the opposite and
          hence their craving for manhood and womanhood. They want
          to live long and to move lightly, and this desire shows
          their hunger for the fine rupas of jivita and
          kayalahuta, etc. Their desire for happiness, good memory
          and good intelligence points to their craving for
          certain mental faculties. Love of one's own physical
          appearance and that of the opposite sex as well as the
          desire for praise and fame again shows the hunger for
          concepts.

          For six sense-objects there are six kinds of craving.
          These six cravings may mean merely the love of sensual
          pleasure (kamatanha). This love may be combined with the
          illusion of permanence (bhavatanha), tanha that implies
          the eternity-belief. Craving is also bound up with the
          belief in annihilation which makes some people overly
          attached to sensual pleasure (vibhavatanha). So there
          are six cravings (corresponding to six sense-objects)
          for each of the three tanhas (kamatanha, bhavatanha and
          vibhavatanha) or 18 cravings. Each of these cravings may
          have internal objects or external objects and this leads
          to 36 kinds of craving. Since each craving may relate to
          the present, past or future, there are thus a total of
          108 kinds of tanha. But all kinds of craving boil down
          to three kinds of tanha viz., kama-, bhava- and
          vibhava-tanhas.

          People who are in contact with unpleasant sense-objects
          long for pleasant objects. Those who suffer pain seek
          freedom from it. In short, according to the commentary,
          the suffering person longs for happiness. People seek
          freedom from pain, poverty and unpleasant objects and
          feelings. Absence of suffering means happiness (sukha).
          We seek freedom from preoccupation with unpleasant
          thoughts, from worry about food, clothing and shelter.
          But, once a man is well provided with the necessities of
          life, he tends to develop other cravings. Says the
          commentary, "The wealthy man wants to increase his
          wealth." For it is in the nature of tanha to be
          insatiable. We wish to enjoy the good things of life
          repeatedly; we wish to increase our possessions. The
          more we have, the more we want, and the higher the
          quality of life is, the greater is the desire to enhance
          it. Tanha never comes to an end for it is fuelled and
          perpetuated by vedana or feeling.

          As regards the tanha associated with upekkha (neutral)
          feeling, the commentary describes the concomitant
          feeling as pleasant (sukha) because of its poise and
          subtlety. In the case of our contact with ordinary
          sense-objects, neither the pleasant feeling nor
          unpleasant feeling is apparent; but since this upekkha
          feeling is fine and subtle, it is tinged with (sukha)
          pleasantness and hence it makes us crave for more
          definite pleasure. It leads to discontentment with the
          ordinary sense-objects and kindles the desire for better
          food, better clothes, better sense-contact and better
          living conditions.

          In short, pleasant sense-objects create attachment and
          craving for better objects. Unpleasant objects create
          the desire to be rid of them. When the sense-objects
          produce neither pleasant nor unpleasant feelings, we are
          still discontented with our lot and crave for better
          things. All these show how vedana gives rise to tanha.

          Tanha And Samsara

          Simultaneously with the arising of consciousness at the
          moment of seeing, etc., there arise nama-rupa, ayatana,
          phassa and vedana. For every ordinary person who is not
          yet free from defilements, vedana (feeling) leads to
          tanha. Tanha in turn causes upadana (clinging) that
          makes him do a good or a bad deed (kammabhava). Under
          certain conditions, kammabhava gives rise to rebirth
          that makes living beings subject to old age, sickness,
          death, grief and all other mental and physical
          sufferings. This is how feelings lead to samsaric
          dukkha.

          Nobody can prevent the arising of nama-rupa, ayatana,
          phassa and vedana as concomitants of vinnana. The Buddha
          and the Arahats, too, have pleasant, unpleasant or
          neutral (upekkha) feelings as a result of contact with
          sense-objects. They feel pain that arises from physical
          affliction but they do not suffer mentally; nor do they
          take delight in pleasant sensations. So they are free
          from craving and attachment. They do not strive for
          pleasure and happiness and because of their non-kammic
          way of life, they do away with rebirth, nama-rupa and
          other causes of suffering. This is the extinction of
          dukkha for the Arahat who is completely free from
          defilements.

          So it is said, "Due to the complete extinction of tanha
          that is rooted in pleasant or unpleasant feeling on the
          Ariyan path, there arises the extinction of upadana
          (clinging)."

          Experience of the pleasant or unpleasant feelings make
          the non-Arahats crave for the good things of life but it
          has no effect on the person who has attained Arahatship
          after passing through the successive stages on the holy
          path. This may sound incredible to the common people but
          in fact the most alluring sense-object has no appeal for
          the Arahat and he takes no interest in his welfare. He
          is, therefore, wholly free from craving and attachment
          and this means complete extinction of kammic effort,
          rebirth and its attendant suffering.

          So it is said, "The extinction of upadana leads to the
          extinction of the cause of rebirth (kammic effort). The
          extinction of kammic effort leads to extinction of
          rebirth. Extinction of rebirth leads to extinction of
          old age, death, grief, etc."

          Extinction Of Craving

          In short, with the complete extinction of tanha due to
          Arahatship, there is the complete extinction of all its
          consequences and this means the extinction of suffering.
          It does not imply the disappearance of happiness or a
          living being. It is simply the cessation of the
          nama-rupa process that is the source of dukkha.

          Just as Arahatship means complete extinction of craving,
          the attainment of anagami stage on the path means
          extinction of sensuous craving together with rebirth in
          the sensual world, old age, death, etc. At the sotapatti
          stage, the yogi is assured of extinction of all craving
          that may lead to the lower worlds or more than seven
          existences. So he is free from all suffering of the
          lower worlds and the suffering for more than seven
          lifetimes in the sensual world. Thus implicit in the
          Paticcasamuppada is the lessening of dukkha with the
          weakening of tanha.

          Likewise, the vipassana insight ensures the momentary
          extinction of tanha. The arising of six sense-objects
          leads to pleasant or unpleasant feeling and in the
          absence of vipassana insight, it finally ends in tanha
          and its attendant suffering.

          But as for the yogi who practises constant mindfulness
          and has developed vipassana insight, he finds only the
          arising and passing away of all phenomena, their
          impermanence, suffering and impersonality. He also finds
          that the pleasant or unpleasant feeling arises and
          passes away instantly. So he does not delight in the
          feeling that arises, he does not crave for another
          feeling; he is free from all craving.

          Extinction of craving on the Ariyan holy path differs
          from extinction by vipassana in that in the former case,
          the extinction is permanent and it concerns every
          sense-object whereas in the latter case extinction is
          neither permanent nor universal. Tanha is extinct only
          at the moment of contemplation and only in respect of
          the object contemplated. Hence, it is called "tadanga
          nibbuti", momentary or partial extinction of
          defilements.

          The yogi who practises meditation is barely aware of
          seeing, hearing, etc. This state of bare awareness
          leaves no room for tanha and as a result upadana
          (clinging), kamma, rebirth, etc., cease to occur. In
          other words, with the cessation of tanha, the samsaric
          cycle is partly cut off and this is called tadanga
          nibbuti.

          The Story Of Mahatissa Thera 

          There is the story of Mahatissa thera in Sri Lanka who
          overcame tanha through the practice of both samatha and
          vipassana. One day he left his forest retreat early in
          the morning and on the way to Anuradha city for his
          begging round, he met a woman who had left her home
          after quarrelling with her husband. At the sight of the
          thera, there arose in her a lustful desire and she
          laughed aloud seductively. On looking at her the thera
          noticed her teeth. Since he had been contemplating the
          skeleton, the whole body of the woman appeared as a heap
          of bones. He concentrated on this mental image and
          attained jhana. Then, after contemplating the image of
          the skeleton in his jhanic state of mind, he attained
          Arahatship.

          The thera continued his journey and on the way met the
          woman's husband. The man asked him whether he had seen a
          woman. The thera replied that he did see something but
          that he did not know whether it was a man or a woman.
          All that he noticed was a skeleton that passed him on
          the way.

          What he actually saw was the woman's teeth, but his
          practice of contemplation had turned his impression of
          her body into the image of a skeleton. Hence, in his
          mind there was no room for lust or any other defilement
          arising from his sense-contact with the woman. Then
          practising vipassana on the basis of his jhanic
          consciousness, he became free from defilements and
          attained Arahatship.

          This story might raise doubts among non-meditating
          people as regards the arising of the image of a skeleton
          at the sight of a person's teeth, but without practice
          one cannot have any clear idea of what mind training
          (bhavana) can accomplish. The mere exercise of
          concentration without any training cannot help to create
          mental images for these depend on steadfast and
          prolonged practice of contemplation. Imagination is the
          power of perception. Repeated contemplation strengthens
          perception which then helps create any kind of image of
          oneself or other people. This faculty of mind is
          possible even for a parrot as is borne out by a story in
          the commentary on Satipatthana sutta.

          Story Of A Parrot

          A dancer put up for the night at the residence of
          bhikkhunis and when she went away, she left an
          intelligent parrot. The bird was cared for by the
          novitiates and it was called Buddha-rakkhita. The abbess
          of the nunnery thought that it would be good if there
          was something to contemplate for the bird living among
          the spiritual aspirants. So she taught her to
          contemplate "atthi: skeleton".

          One morning the parrot was swooped up by an eagle. In
          the wake of the hue and cry raised by the young nuns,
          the eagle became frightened and dropped the parrot. The
          Abbess asked it what it contemplated when it was seized
          by the eagle. The bird replied, "I thought of a skeleton
          being carried off and I wondered where it would be
          scattered." The Abbess said "Well done! This
          contemplation will contribute to your liberation from
          samsaric existence."

          A thing that is repeatedly contemplated will become
          fixed in the long run. Since even a parrot can imagine a
          skeleton, there is no reason why a human being cannot do
          likewise. The parrot imagined itself as well as others
          to be skeletons. Because of this contemplation, it had
          no fear, anger or worry when it was taken away by the
          eagle.

          So Satipatthana bhavana is extolled as a practice that
          helps to overcome grief and anxiety and to bring about
          the extinction of mental and physical suffering. But
          there may be many people who are not as wise as the
          parrot in the story since they never take interest in
          the dhamma and contemplate it. The yogi should resolve
          to surpass the parrot in the practice of vipassana.

          If Mahatissa thera had failed to regard the laughing
          woman as a skeleton, he might have become lustful and
          fallen a victim to temptation in the solitude of the
          forest. Even if he had no sexual desire at that time,
          any impression of the woman would have laid him open to
          temptation at other times. But thanks to his
          contemplation of the skeleton in the practice of
          vipassana, he overcame defilements and achieved final
          liberation from samsaric existence. Here, the extinction
          of tanha through vipassana practice is called tadanga
          nibbuti, partial extinction, while extinction through
          arahatship is called "total extinction".

          Contemplation And Extinction

          So with the total extinction of tanha that results from
          vedana, there is the extinction of upadana which means
          the extinction of all the consequences of craving.
          Contemplation of anicca, dukkha and anatta ensures the
          partial extinction of tanha, upadana, kamma, rebirth,
          etc. The object of vipassana practice is to put an end
          to defilements and samsaric suffering. So it is a matter
          of paramount importance that deserves the attention of
          everyone who seeks total liberation. Without this
          practice, pleasant or unpleasant feeling at every moment
          of seeing, etc., is bound to lead to craving, kamma and
          rebirth.

          The consciousness involved in every moment of seeing is
          due to avijja and sankhara in the previous existence.
          Seeing occurs together with vinnana, nama-rupa, ayatana,
          phassa and vedana. The scriptures treat each of these
          dhammas separately in terms of their causal relations,
          but in fact they do not arise separately one after
          another. If vinnana arises from sankhara, it arises
          together with its respective nama-rupa, ayatana, phassa
          and vedana. All of these dhammas are the results of the
          past kamma sankhara. They are termed vipaka-vatta which
          means round or cycle of resultants. The round of
          defilements viz., ignorance, craving and clinging
          produce round of kamma viz., kamma and sankhara which
          leads to round of resultants viz., consciousness,
          nama-rupa, sense-organs, contact, feeling which again
          give rise to the round of defilements.

          The arising of these five resultants at the moment of
          seeing means to most people simply just seeing. In fact,
          seeing is the product of vinnana, nama-rupa, ayatana,
          phassa and vedana as are other psycho-physical events
          such as hearing, smelling and so forth.

          Seeing involves consciousness together with mental
          advertence (manasikara), volition (cetana), etc., plus
          the eye-organ which comprises the nama-rupa. It also
          involves four ayatanas viz., eye sensitivity, visual
          object, eye consciousness and mental advertence
          (dhammayatana). Contact with the visual object is phassa
          and the pleasantness or unpleasantness that the object
          causes is vedana. Hence all the five resultants are
          bound up with every moment of seeing. The same may be
          said of other phenomena that arise from hearing,
          smelling and so forth.

          Cutting Off At The Foundation

          These five psycho-physical resultants or phenomena occur
          ceaselessly one after another and comprise what we call
          man, deva or living being. These are conventional terms
          that refer in fact to the collection of the five
          nama-rupa elements. There is no solid, monolithic and
          permanent being. The only reality is the arising and
          passing away of nama-rupa and for the mindful yogi, this
          insight means the extinction of craving, clinging,
          kamma, rebirth, suffering - a chain of consequences that
          might result from feeling in the case of common people.

          This is the way to the cessation of the wheel of life
          (Paticcasamuppada) through the elimination of its key
          link viz., tanha as conditioned by feeling. In order to
          prevent tanha from arising as the result of vedana, at
          every moment of seeing the yogi should focus on every
          phenomenon that arises from six senses. Here, the most
          obvious of these sense contacts is the tactile sensation
          that concerns gross primary elements (Mahabhuta) and it
          is necessary for the beginner to start contemplation
          with it.

          This way is in accord with the Buddha's teaching in
          Satipatthana sutta, "Gacchanto va gacchamiti pajanati:
          (the yogi) knows that he is walking when he walks." How
          does he know it? He knows it as he notes mentally
          "walking, walking". He practises mindfulness, too, when
          he stands, lies, bends his arms, or does anything else.
          When there is no bodily action or movement to be noted,
          he should direct his attention to the abdominal rising
          and falling. He should also note any thought, or mental
          activity and any feeling that may arise in him. In
          short, he must be mindful of all the psycho-physical
          phenomena that arise from the six senses. As
          concentration develops, such mindfulness leads to
          insight into anicca, dukkha and anatta, an insight that
          leaves no room for craving. With the extinction of
          craving, there is also an end to clinging, and rebirth
          with all its attendant suffering. This is the way to the
          cessation of samsaric existence or life-cycle through
          the elimination of its root cause, namely, craving.

          Today, science and technology have created machines
          which we cannot run or stop running without a knowledge
          of their modus operandi. Those who know the secret can
          operate them by manipulating their key plugs. In the
          same way, the keynote of the life-cycle as described by
          the doctrine of Paticcasamuppada is that tanha is caused
          by vedana, but this is true only if vedana is coupled
          with two kinds of latent tendencies (anusaya) viz.,
          Santananusaya and arammananusaya. The Arahats are free
          from these tendencies and so, although they have
          feelings, their craving is extinct. This extinction of
          craving leaves no room for new kamma, neutralizes old
          kamma, and there is no more rebirth after their
          parinibbana.

          But ordinary people have potential defilements which
          means not the existence of evil desires lying latent
          somewhere but only the possibility of their arising
          under certain circumstances. Hence, the Pali term
          santananusaya kilesa for this tendency. This potential
          kilesa may become greed, hatred, ignorance and other
          evils in the case of those who fail to contemplate the
          nama-rupas and so become subject to the illusions of
          permanency, happiness and ego-entity. This kilesa which
          may arise from sense-objects in the absence of vipassana
          insight is called arammananusaya kilesa.

          Kilesa And Unmindfulness

          Greed and anger that arise in connection with what one
          has seen or heard are the manifestations of the second
          kind of latent tendency. The impressions that we retain
          are those of permanent, lovely or repulsive beings or
          things. So recall of those images gives rise to
          attachment (lobha), anger (dosa) or illusion of
          permanency (moha).

          Lobha is another synonym for tanha. It is due to
          pleasant feeling but it may also arise when unpleasant
          feeling makes us crave for pleasant sensations.
          Ignorance, too, leads to complacency, attachment and
          craving. Thus lobha, dosa and moha give rise to feeling
          which in turn causes craving with its attendant
          sufferings of samsaric existence. It is only the
          practice in bare awareness of seeing, hearing, etc.,
          that rules out the possibility of craving and nostalgia
          for the pleasant sensations from the senses. Without
          this practice, craving dominates us and leads to
          suffering in afterlife as well as here and now.

          In the Mora jataka, the bodhisatta who was then a
          peacock used to utter a gatha when he arose in the
          morning and when he went to sleep in the evening. So for
          700 years he escaped the trap set by a hunter. Then the
          hunter employed a peahen as a decoy and enticed by her,
          the peacock forgot to recite the gatha and fell into the
          trap. In Benares, there was a harpist called Guttila. He
          made love to a girl but he was ridiculed and rejected.
          So at night he sang a very sweet song and played his
          harp in front of the girl's house. Fascinated by the
          music, the girl rushed out blindly, stumbled and fell to
          her death. In the Mora jataka it was the female voice,
          and here it was the male voice that brought about
          suffering and death.

          No one can deny that what we hear is impermanent.
          Everything that we hear vanishes instantly, yet we enjoy
          songs and music because of their apparent continuity. If
          we note every sound, "hearing, hearing" mentally, our
          realization of their impermanence makes it impossible
          for our pleasant feelings to become cravings. This means
          non-arising of upadana and all its resultant suffering.

          Smell is seldom experienced by the yogi. He must, of
          course, note it and see that it does not give rise to
          craving. 

          Mindfulness is especially important in eating. The
          unmindful person delights in eating good food. He is
          fond of such pleasure; he craves for it in future and
          hereafter. This craving for good food and drinks is
          powerful. It may lead to an existence that makes a
          person subsist on bad food. Thus, according to the
          Balapandita sutta, those who do misdeeds for the
          pleasure of good food are reborn as animals that eat
          grass, leaves or human excreta.

          Eating bad food also tends to create the desire for good
          food. Therefore, it is necessary for the yogi to note
          everything, every movement of his hand and mouth and
          every sensation when he is eating. Through this practice
          of mindfulness he becomes aware of the vanishing of his
          actions, sensations and feeling. In this way he gains an
          insight into impermanence of everything, an insight that
          leads to the extinction of craving and its attendant
          suffering.

          Thoughts And Tactile Impressions

          Tactile impression is always present all over the
          physical body. Thinking, too, is also present all the
          time except when the yogi goes to sleep. So thoughts and
          tactile impressions form the objects of vipassana
          practice for most of the time. The yogi contemplates the
          tactile impressions when he has nothing else to engage
          his attention.

          He notes his thoughts even though they happen to be
          unpleasant and undesirable. The beginner in meditation
          is often subject to such distractions, but they usually
          disappear as he gains practice and develops
          concentration. Thoughts about the Dhamma occur to some
          yogis from time to time and these should be noted.
          Introspection of these thoughts also ensures insight
          into impermanence and the extinction of suffering.

          Here, some may wonder what this description of vipassana
          practice has to do with the discourse on
          Paticcasamuppada. The doctrine points out the chain of
          consequences as conditioned by their respective causes
          and our object is to show the way to the end of samsaric
          suffering that finally results from the interplay of
          their causes and consequences. So we have to describe
          the practice wherever it is relevant. Thus, when it is
          said that "avijja leads to sankhara and sankhara to
          rebirth", we have to show the way to remove avijja. So
          also in connection with vinnana, etc., that finally
          bring about dukkha, it is necessary to stress the need
          for removing the link between vedana and tanha, that is
          the main cause of dukkha.

          Three Kinds Of Craving (Tanha)

          If feeling (vedana) that arises from contact with
          sense-objects is not rightly contemplated, it leads to
          one of the three kinds of craving viz., craving for
          sensual pleasure, craving for existence and craving for
          non-existence.

          The first kind of craving (kamatanha) is focused on
          sensual objects and it is most prevalent among the
          living beings of the sensual world.

          The craving for existence (bhavatanha) is bound up with
          the eternity-belief (sassata-ditthi). It presupposes the
          permanence of a living being and the indestructibility
          of the ego despite the dissolution of the physical body.
          The belief is not deep-rooted among the Buddhists, but
          non-Buddhists hold it so firmly that it is a major
          impediment to their spiritual liberation. Their craving
          for existence is evident in their illusion of permanent
          self and their love of sensual pleasure.

          The craving for non-existence (vibhavatanha) is born of
          the annihilation belief (uccheda-ditthi). The belief is
          not found among Buddhists and no one is a true Buddhist
          if he or she holds the belief. The craving for
          non-existence means the desire for the automatic
          cessation of the life-stream after death as well as the
          love of pleasure rooted in the materialistic view of
          life.

          Each of these three cravings stems from the failure to
          realize anicca, dukkha and anatta through the
          introspection of feelings. So in order to forestall
          craving and its consequences, namely, rebirth and
          suffering, the yogi should contemplate every phenomenon,
          and try to see everything as it really is.

          Tanha Causes Upadana

          From craving there arises clinging (upadana). The Pali
          term upadana is a compound of //upa// - intense,
          extreme, and //adana// - grasp, take, and so it means to
          grasp firmly, or intense, obsessive craving. Clinging is
          of four kinds: (1) clinging to sensuous objects, (2)
          clinging to false views, (3) clinging to irrelevant,
          non-Ariyan practices as the way to salvation, and (4)
          clinging to atta or ego-belief.

          (1) Clinging to sensual objects:

          Sensual objects excite the desire of all living beings
          who are not free from the craving for sensual pleasure.
          These objects are five in number viz., visual form,
          sound, odour, taste and contact.

          Visual form is the object that is pleasant and
          attractive to the eye. It may possess natural beauty or
          it may appear to be beautiful in the eyes of the viewer.
          Pleasant visual form, whether real or apparent, is to be
          found in men, women and consumer goods. It is the
          physical appearance of females that attracts the males
          and vice-versa. The things that both men and women
          desire are clothes, jewellery, cars, etc. It is not
          merely the form or colour that excites desire. Man and
          woman are drawn towards each other not only by the
          complexion but by the whole body of the opposite sex,
          and the same may be said of consumer goods that make
          people greedy. Form or colour only serves to introduce
          or identify the object of desire just as the cry of an
          animal helps the hunter to track and find it out.

          Sound as the object of sensual pleasure is represented
          by the voices of men and women, songs or music. Some
          sounds and voices are really sweet while some only
          appear to be sweet in our ears. Again, it is not the
          mere sound that attracts us for when we delight in
          hearing a sound or a voice, the whole thing or the being
          that produces it forms the focus of our attachment.

          Odour as the source of sensual pleasure comprises all
          kinds of scents: scent of flavours, powder, fragrant
          essence. Men and women apply these odoriferous
          substances to their bodies and delight in these scents,
          and it is not the scents alone but the whole physical
          body giving out the scent that attracts people.

          The sensual pleasure that we have by eating or drinking
          is rooted in food and drinks. The good or pleasant taste
          may be real or apparent. For pigs, dogs and other
          animals, garbage, refuse and filth may be a source of
          sensual pleasure. Some people are very fond of bitter or
          spicy food. Some like intoxicants. Their pleasure is
          more apparent than real since normal ordinary people do
          not share their tastes. The pleasure of eating is not
          confined to food; it centres also on the preparation of
          food and the man or woman who prepares it. This is
          evident in the pleasure of a man who enjoys eating the
          food prepared by his wife although her culinary skill
          may not impress other people.

          Another source of sensual pleasure is the body or
          tactile impression. Soft and smooth beds, comfortable
          clothing, something warm in cold season and something
          cold in hot season, the body of the opposite sex - all
          these form the objects of contact that create not only
          the craving for the tactile impression but also the
          craving for the whole body of the living or non-living
          object. The tactile impression only serves to pave the
          way for attachment to the whole body.

          Bases Of Sensual Pleasure

          Then there are living and non-living objects that form
          the sources of sensual pleasure. There are gold, silver,
          jewellery, rice, cattle, poultry, vehicles, houses,
          land, attendants. Men work daily to secure these sources
          of pleasure. They seek these things to have good food,
          good clothes and good houses, to see movies and so
          forth.

          Sensual desire (tanha) usually leads to intense craving
          for sensual objects (kamapadana). When a man starts
          smoking, he delights in his new habit but as the habit
          grows upon him he becomes addicted to it. Thus, we
          become excessively fond of certain objects and we feel
          restless and discomfited if we do not get them. In this
          way tanha develops into upadana (clinging, grasping or
          infatuation).

          Upadana cannot come into being without tanha. The music
          and songs of foreigners do not appeal to Burmese ears
          and so there is no craze for them among the people.
          Burmese people do not eat dogs. Dog's flesh is abhorrent
          to them and so there can be no upadana in regard to it.

          (2) Ditthupadana (Bigotry)

          Another kind of upadana is ditthupadana which means
          clinging to false views. It covers all the false views,
          exclusive of those in the categories of the third and
          fourth upadana. So every false belief is to be regarded
          as upadana. Here we will describe at length ten false
          views that have a firm grip on the people.

          The first view is that alms-giving is not a good kammic
          act, that it means only a waste of money. This view
          rejects the sense of values and the fruits of a good
          act. It has, however, no basis in fact. The act of dana
          makes the donor joyful. It benefits the recipient
          physically and mentally and it may even help to save the
          life of a starving man. The donor is popular and highly
          esteemed. After his death, he attains the deva-world. It
          is hard to convince the sceptic of this post-mortem
          reward, but these other-worldly results of kamma come
          within the purview of Arahats and other holy men with
          psychic powers. One of these powers is the ability to
          see with the divine eye (dibbacakkhu). This psychic
          power enables one to see donors prospering in
          deva-worlds or evil-doing non-donors suffering in the
          lower worlds. Such vision can be had even by some yogis
          who have not acquired psychic powers but developed much
          samadhi. Again some may dismiss these visions as
          figments of imagination but the agreement of these
          accounts about the other worlds lends weight to their
          credibility.

          The second false view is also a negation of the kammic
          benefits for alms-giving on a grand scale.

          The third false view rejects the kammic benefits of
          feeding guests, giving gifts on new year day and so
          forth. This view is essentially the same as the third
          view. It refers to small acts of dana that were in vogue
          in ancient India but were dismissed as futile by
          heretics.

          The fourth view denies the kammic result of any morally
          good or evil act. There is a lot of evidence for the
          kammic effects of a man's acts in this life, and, as for
          the other-worldly result of an act, those with psychic
          power can testify to it. But people who are excessively
          fond of sensual pleasure like to give free rein to their
          desires. They frown on moral values and ideas which they
          regard as a hindrance to their material progress. So
          they put forward many arguments to justify their
          rejection of the kammic law. In the final analysis all
          this is due to their excessive love of sensual pleasure.

          The fifth and sixth view deny any respect, honour or
          support that we owe to our parents for all their loving
          care in our childhood. It is said that a man and his
          wife get children through sexual intercourse by
          accident, that they bring up the children from a sense
          of responsibility, and so there is no reason why
          children should be grateful to their parents. So it is
          not a good deed on the part of a man to look after his
          parents nor is it an evil to wrong them. It is a
          terrible view; those who hold it will not be respected
          by their children.

          The seventh view denies the existence of any world other
          than the human and the animal worlds. It also rejects
          the belief that an animal may be reborn as a human
          being.

          The eighth view denies rebirth of a human being in deva
          or animal worlds or in hell. It preaches annihilation of
          life after death.

          The ninth view denies rebirth by //opapatika// or
          spontaneous generation. In other words, it denies the
          existence of devas, brahmas, petas, asuras, etc., who
          appear with their full-fledged bodies without being
          conceived in the womb. This view is untenable since
          encounters with good or evil spirits are reported from
          all over the world; there are mediums and witch-doctors
          who can invoke spirits; and devas, Brahmas, etc., are
          sometimes visible to the yogis who practise vipassana.

          The last view is that there is no ascetic or Brahman who
          speaks of this world and the other invisible world and
          who conforms to his teaching. The view implies that
          there is no person who can speak independently of this
          world and the other world on the basis of his actual
          extraordinary experience, that all their teaching is
          guesswork and speculation, and so false and evil.

          Today this view is echoed by those who scoff at
          religion. They reject the existence of Buddhas and
          Arahats who know the world as it really is through their
          own effort. But the logic underlying this view is
          self-defeating for by the same kind of reasoning, one
          can reject the view since those who hold it also do not
          know anything about this or the other world really.

          As for the Buddha-dhamma, it rests on extraordinary
          insight (Sayain abhinna desita). As such it leads itself
          to empirical investigation and there is much scientific
          evidence for it.

          The man who preached the Indian brand of agnosticism in
          the time of the Buddha was Ajita. He attacked all
          religious teaching without qualification and so it is to
          be assumed that the arahats and the Buddha, too, were
          the targets of his denunciation.

          Right Views

          All these ten wrong views boil down to the denial of the
          law of kamma for the rejection of kamma means rejection
          of any benefit accruing from the acts of dana and
          reference to parents, and other good deeds, as well as
          the kammic potential for arahatship or Buddhahood.
          Likewise, the ten right views mentioned below are based
          on the belief in kamma, or moral retribution.

          (1) The first view is that dana is beneficial. One who
          gives alms is admired at least by the recipients. They
          will respect him, praise him and help him when he is in
          trouble. He dies calmly with good death-bed visions and
          after his death he attains good rebirth in deva-worlds
          or in human society. His good rebirth may finally lead
          to the Ariyan path and Nibbana. It was usually with an
          act of dana that the bodhisatta, and others embarked on
          their long spiritual journey leading to the goal of
          Buddhahood, paccekabuddhahood or arahatship.

          The kammic effect of alms-giving is also evident in the
          material prosperity of some people. Some people do the
          same job such as business, farming, etc., but differ in
          their accomplishments. Some become prosperous while
          others make no progress materially. Some meet with
          success without working hard while others fail to
          prosper despite their hard work. Other things being
          equal, this disparity in the fortunes of some persons is
          no doubt due to dana or lack of dana in a previous life.

          (2) and (3) The man who believes in the law of kamma
          will have no doubt about the kammic potency of giving
          alms lavishly or the small acts of dana such as feeding
          the guests, giving presents and so forth.

          (4) These three right views are implicit in the law of
          kamma or moral retribution. That a man fares according
          to his good or bad deeds is an undeniable fact of life.
          A man who leads a good life in accordance with the
          instruction of his parents and teachers is popular, gets
          help from others and achieves success, and when he grows
          up he becomes a prosperous gentleman. Similarly, because
          of good kamma in a previous life a man may be born of a
          good family and blessed with health, wealth, physical
          beauty and sincere friends. The bad effect of evil kamma
          such as ill-health, poverty, ugliness, etc., are equally
          well-known to everybody.

          (5) and (6) The belief in kamma also implies a
          recognition of our deep gratitude to parents. Parents
          take care of their children from the time of their
          conception. The mother is especially careful about her
          health, her food, and movements for the sake of the
          child in her womb. If she is a good Buddhist, she keeps
          sabbath and contemplates the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha
          in the hope of influencing her child spiritually. After
          the birth of the child, the parents have to attend to
          his physical needs and educate him, and when he comes of
          age they have to give him financial support for a start
          in life. For these reasons, it is our bounden duty to
          revere and care for our parents; and this is a kammic
          act that benefits us immensely. At the very least, a man
          who respects his parents will be respected by his
          children while a man who wrongs his parents is very
          likely to be disdained by his children.

          Seeing The World Beyond

          (7), (8) and (9) The right views about the existence of
          this world, the invisible world and the living beings
          such as the devas who come into existence by spontaneous
          materialization. These right views are also implicit in
          the belief in the law of kamma for the law of kamma
          makes it possible for a living being from the animal or
          deva world to pass on to human world or vice-versa
          according to his kamma after death. This can be
          demonstrated to a certain extent but the observer will
          have to possess psychic powers, vipassana insight or the
          ability to think rationally.

          Through the practice of samathajhana, a yogi can acquire
          the power of recalling the past lives; he can have the
          divine-eye (dibbacakkhu) that affords him a glimpse into
          the physical appearance, etc., of a person who has
          passed on to a new existence. This psychic power is also
          accessible to those who practise vipassana.

          Those who cannot practise samatha or vipassana will have
          to depend on their power of reasoning. There are certain
          persons here and there who can recall their previous
          lives, people who are credited with jatissaranana in
          Buddhist literature. They describe their past lives as
          human beings, animals, spirits or ghosts. To the
          rational mind, these accounts clearly point to the
          post-mortem transition from this world to the other
          world and vice-versa as well as to the instant
          materialization of certain beings.

          Here we wish to mention the way of thinking on the issue
          of a future life suggested by wise men. Suppose a man
          accepts the belief in kamma and life after death while
          another man rejects the belief. The second man will not
          do good deeds such as dana, sila and he will not avoid
          doing evil. He will give free rein to his desires.
          Therefore, he has no virtue that is worthy of respect
          and admiration by other people. If contrary to his
          belief, the law of kamma and a future life are real, he
          is bound to land in the lower worlds immediately after
          his death and suffer for many lifetimes throughout his
          samsaric existence.

          On the other hand, the man who believes in kamma and
          after-life will avoid evil, do good and so, even if
          there is no kamma or a future life, he will be extolled
          and well-known for his good character. He will rejoice
          at the contemplation of his good deeds. As a good
          citizen, he will lead a peaceful life. These are the
          benefits that will certainly accrue to him from his
          belief in kamma in the present life. And if life after
          death is indeed a fact, he is assured of happiness
          hereafter. So it is reasonable to accept the belief in
          after-life since it serves our interests now or in
          future in any event. This is the infallible way of
          thinking that the Buddha recommends in Apannaka sutta of
          Majjhima nikaya.

          Parami And Kamma

          (10) Faith in the Buddha, the Arahats or holy men who
          can claim transcendent knowledge about this and the
          other worlds and who possess a noble character that
          lends credence to their teachings - such faith also
          presupposes the belief in kamma, for the spiritual
          attainment of Arahats and the Buddha rests in part on
          their parami (perfection) which does not differ
          essentially from kamma. Development of parami is a kind
          of learning. Just as a child has to learn many things in
          order to become well-educated, so also a bodhisatta has
          to seek knowledge and train himself for the attainment
          of his goal.

          Some parents and elders take their children to movies
          and theatres while others take theirs to pagodas and
          monasteries. In this way the children acquire good or
          bad habits and develop a craving for sensual pleasure or
          a taste for the higher things of life. Good habits and
          good training may be called a kind of parami. Some
          children are spontaneously inclined to religious life,
          some men and women have immense zeal and energy for the
          practice of vipassana. Such a child's unusual interest
          in religion or a man's unusual love of spiritual life is
          born of the parami in a previous life.

          Prince Siddhattha became the Buddha through the gradual
          development and perfection of parami such as dana, sila,
          nekkhama (renunciation) and so forth over aeons spanning
          innumerable lifetimes. It was not a matter of easy
          accomplishment in a single existence. It was this
          cumulative kammic potential or parami that helped to
          strengthen his will when he left his family and the
          luxuries of his royal palace in search of enlightenment.
          Today, some people speak of their disillusionment with
          life but it is hard for a man to renounce all his wealth
          and become a monk, let alone to think of the kind of
          renunciation that distinguished the bodhisatta.

          The bodhisatta cultivated other paramis, too, for the
          sake of wisdom, at energy fortitude and so forth in way
          of his previous lives. As a result in his last existence
          he reflected and realized independently the nature of
          life, its dependent origination, etc. It was his kammic
          potential (parami) that finally led to his supreme
          enlightenment and likewise it was the parami that
          contributed to the spiritual attainments of
          Paccekabuddhas and Arahats. Hence, the belief in kamma
          makes it possible for the spiritual aspirant to become
          the arahat, Paccekabuddha or the Buddha and one who
          accepts the belief has no doubt about the transcendent
          knowledge of the Buddha and other holy men.

          In short, ditthupadana is generally synonymous with
          rejection of the law of kamma. It was not widespread in
          the time of the Buddha or even about a hundred years ago
          but now it is gaining ground, thanks to the books that
          have criticized the doctrine of kamma in the name of
          scientific knowledge. As the scriptures say, false
          beliefs are usually rooted in craving and with man's
          increasing hunger for material goods, scepticism about
          kamma is likely to become dominant and it is up to good
          people to guard themselves against it.

          Apart from the rejection of kamma, ditthupadana also
          means strong attachment to all false beliefs e.g.
          ego-belief, annihilation-belief, etc. The exceptions are
          the two false beliefs covered by silabbatupadana and
          attavadupadana.

          (3) Silabbatupadana (Clinging To False Practices)

          Silabbatupadana is clinging to wrong practices that do
          not lead to cessation of suffering. It is the view which
          identifies the habits of cows, dogs and other animals
          with the way to the end of dukkha. It found expression
          among some ascetics in the time of the Buddha. Like
          animals, they lived naked, ate, defecated and went about
          on all fours, and slept on the ground. They believed
          that such a way of life served to purge them of all evil
          kamma and forestall new kammic action, thereby assuring
          them of an end to suffering and eternal bliss after
          death.

          To a Buddhist, this kind of belief may sound incredible
          but some people's preferences are very odd and they
          differ in their views and inclinations. So there came to
          the Buddha two ascetics, one Punna who lived like an ox
          and another Seniya who lived like a dog. They asked the
          Lord about the benefits of their practice. The Lord was
          reluctant to answer but when pressed for his view, he
          replied that an ascetic who committed himself wholly to
          the habits of an ox or a dog would be reborn as an ox or
          a dog after death; that it was wrong to believe that
          such practices led to the deva-world; and that one who
          held a wrong belief was likely to land in hell or in the
          animal world. Then the Buddha went on to describe (1)
          the evil practices that bear evil fruits, (2) the good
          practices that bear good fruits, (3) the evil practices
          mixed with good practices and (4) the practice of the
          Ariyan path that leads to the total extinction of good
          and bad kammas.

          On hearing this sermon Punna became the disciple of the
          Buddha. Seniya joined the order and attained Arahatship
          through the practice of the Dhamma.

          The Story Of Korakhattiya

          In the time of the Buddha there was a man named
          Korakhattiya who lived like a dog. One day the Buddha
          passed by him, accompanied by a Licchavi bhikkhu,
          Sunakkhatta by name.

          Sunakkhatta saw the ascetic moving on all fours and
          eating the food on the ground without the help of his
          hands. The ascetic's way of life gave the monk the
          impression of a holy man, nay, an Arahat who had few
          desires. In point of fact, the ascetic's mode of life
          was a kind of silabbatupadana that would lead him to one
          of the four lower worlds. It was abhorrent to those who
          had high ideals and aspirations. It had appeal for
          Sunakkhatta only because of his low tastes and desires.
          The Licchavi monk was exceptional in this respect. There
          were then not as now many people who preferred false
          views and false practices that did not accord with the
          Buddha's teaching. This was probably a hangover from
          wrong attachments in their previous lives.

          The Buddha divined Sunakkhatta's thoughts and said, "So
          you regard that ascetic as an Arahat! I wonder why you
          do not feel ashamed of being called the disciple of the
          Buddha." The monk then accused the Lord of envying the
          ascetic's Arahatship. This is of course the kind of
          retort that is to be expected from an ignorant man when
          someone speaks the truth about his false teacher. The
          Buddha explained that his object was to remove the
          monk's illusions that would do him no good. Then he went
          on to predict that after seven days the ascetic would
          die of indigestion and land in the lowest Asura world;
          that his body would be dumped in a certain cemetery;
          that if the monk went there and asked about his present
          abode, the dead body would reveal it.

          The Buddha made this prophecy in order to restore
          Sunakkhatta's faith in him. Through the practice of
          samatha Sunakkhatta had attained jhana and divine eye.
          With his divine eye he had seen the gods and goddesses
          and as he wished to hear their voices he asked the
          Buddha about the way to the attainment of divine ear.
          But the Lord declined to fulfil his desire because his
          bad kamma stood in the way and he would blame the Lord
          for the non-attainment of divine ear. Nevertheless, he
          lost his faith in the Lord because he thought that it
          was envy that motivated the Lord to refuse his request.
          So the Buddha predicted the ascetic's fate to impress
          Sunakkhatta and salvage his faith.

          Sunakkhatta informed the ascetic of the Lord's
          prediction and warned him against overeating. The
          ascetic fasted for six days but on the seventh day he
          could not resist the temptation any longer. He wolfed
          down the food provided by a lay follower and died of
          indigestion that very night.

          His fellow ascetics dragged his dead body to dump it in
          any place other than the cemetery specified in the
          Buddha's prediction. They got to a cemetery but found it
          to be the very place they wished to avoid for it had the
          kind of grass predicted by the Buddha. They tried to
          drag the body away but the creeper-rope snapped and all
          their efforts to remove it were in vain. So they had to
          abandon the corpse there.

          Sunakkhatta heard the news but still he hoped to prove
          the falsity of the latter part of the Lord's prediction.
          He went to the cemetery and rapping the dead man asked
          about his abode. The corpse arose and after saying that
          he was in Kalakamjika asura abode fell back on the
          ground. Kalakamjika is the lowest asura abode. Asura is
          a kind of peta with a monstrous body and a mouth which
          is so small that it cannot drink and eat well.

          According to the commentary, it was the Buddha's psychic
          power that made the dead body possessed by the asura
          peta. Given the ability of some sorcerers to raise the
          dead, there is no need to have any doubt about the
          resurrection of the dead ascetic through the psychic
          power (iddhi) of the Buddha.

          Sunakkhatta came back crestfallen and had to admit that
          the Lord's prophecy had come wholly true. Even so, he
          did not have complete faith in the Buddha. Later on he
          left the holy order and disparaged the Lord.

          Other Silabbata Practices

          Besides the mode of life of cows and dogs there are
          other practices that can be described as silabbata. Some
          people emulate the elephants, horses, and so forth. In
          other words, they worship animals. The commentary refers
          to king-worshippers which may mean in Burma people who
          worship various nats. Nat-worship among Burmese people
          is not motivated by the desire for liberation from
          samsara (life cycle). It stems from the hope for
          material benefits here and now and as such it does not
          fall within the scope of silabbatupadana, but it is
          upadana over the belief that leads some people to make
          animal sacrifice in their worship of the nats.

          There are also fire-worship, naga-worship, moon-worship,
          sun-worship, spirit-worship and so forth. If the object
          in any kind of worship is to have happiness or spiritual
          liberation after death, it is silabbatupadana. In short,
          all practices divorced from the Four Noble Truths and
          the Noble Eightfold Path are labelled silabbata and
          attachment to them as the way to salvation is
          silabbatupadana.

          The yogi who has attained at least the sotapanna stage
          through the contemplation of nama-rupa is well aware of
          the right path to Nibbana and so he has freed himself
          from the belief in silabbata. He knows empirically that
          the way to the end of suffering is only through the
          introspection of nama-rupa and the practice of the Noble
          Eightfold Path.

          For example, if you know from experience how to go from
          this meditation centre to Shwedagon pagoda, you will not
          be misled by anyone who points out the wrong way.
          Likewise, the yogi at the sotapanna stage knows the
          right way to Nibbana and so he has no illusion about the
          beliefs and practices such as belief in God, nat worship
          or asceticism that pass for the way to salvation.

          Those who do not know the right path are not free from
          such illusion. They may have acquired it from their
          ignorant parents, teachers or friends; or because of
          their poor basic knowledge, they might have been
          misguided by books that advocate false beliefs and
          practices. The ordinary man (puthujjana) is ignorant of
          the right path to Nibbana and so he will have to reckon
          with many teachers and practices through his samsaric
          existence. If he falls for a false teacher or a false
          practice, he is in for a lot of suffering. Thus the
          practice of austerities will only cause hardships and
          pain and the performance of animal sacrifice will
          certainly lead to the lower worlds.

          It is also upadana over silabbata to believe that
          rupajhana or arupajhana means complete salvation. In
          short, even the moral perfection or jhanic attainment in
          the mundane sphere, though commendable, may lead to
          silabbatupadana if it is divorced from the holy path of
          vipassana and regarded as the total liberation. Udaka
          sutta of Samyutta nikaya refers to the rishi Udaka, who
          having attained the arupa world through his arupajhana
          declared that he had uprooted the cause of dukkha and
          made an end of it. This was also the illusion of another
          rishi called Alara. This illusion or upadana led to
          their good kamma which in turn led to their rebirth in
          the arupa worlds.

          So in his discourse to Baka brahma, the Buddha says: "I
          see the dangers of birth, old age, death, etc., inherent
          in the three worlds of sensuality, rupa and arupa. I see
          those who seek Nibbana still bound to existence. So I do
          not approve of any kind of existence. I have repudiated
          all attachment to existence."

          Like the two rishis, those who do not know the Buddha's
          teaching never attain their goal. Although they seek
          permanent happiness, they follow the wrong path of
          silabbata and remain entangled in the samsaric existence
          of dukkha. So we can hardly over-emphasize the
          importance of right effort on the right path as pointed
          out by the Buddha.

          (4) Attavadupadana (Clinging To Belief In Soul)

          Attavadupadana is a compound of attavada and upadana.
          Attavada means belief in soul entity and attavadupadana
          is attachment to the view that every person is a living
          soul.

          Attachment to the ego-belief is of two kinds, viz.,
          ordinary attachment and deep-rooted attachment. Ordinary
          attachment that prevails among ignorant Buddhists is not
          harmful to progress on the holy path. The belief is not
          deeply entrenched because Buddhists accept the Buddha's
          teaching which denies the permanent soul and recognizes
          nama-rupa as the only reality behind a living being.
          Intelligent Buddhists are still less vulnerable to the
          belief. For they know that seeing, hearing, etc.,
          involve only the sense-organs (eye, ear, etc.), the
          corresponding sense-objects (visual form, sound, etc.)
          and the corresponding states of consciousness.

          But most people are not wholly free from the ego-belief.
          Even the yogi who practises vipassana may at times fall
          for it and it is likely to attract every man who has not
          attained the holy path.

          In fact those who taught ego-belief described the ego as
          the owner of the five khandhas, as an independent
          entity, possessing free-will and self-determination. It
          was this view of atta (soul) that the Buddha questioned
          in his dialogue with the wandering ascetic Saccaka. Said
          the Buddha, "You say that this physical body is your
          atta. Then can you always keep it well, free from
          anything unpleasant?" Saccaka had to answer in the
          negative. Further questioning by the Lord elicited from
          him the reply that he had in fact no control over any of
          the five khandhas.

          So the ancient Buddhist teachers translate "rupam
          anatta" as "the physical body is subject to no control",
          etc. In fact it is the denial of the "samiatta" or the
          false view of atta as a controlling entity. Every
          ordinary person holds this view and believes in
          free-will. He can overcome it completely only through
          vipassana contemplation.

          The attavada teachers also say that atta exists
          permanently in the physical body. In other words, it
          means the personal identity that is said to persist
          through the whole existence.

          Again, they say that atta is the subject of all actions,
          thus identifying it with sankharakkhandha. It is the
          illusion that creates the belief: "It is I that see,
          hear, etc."

          They also say that atta is the living entity that feels;
          that it is atta that is happy or unhappy. In other
          words, they describe atta or soul in terms of vedana or
          feeling.

          Thus, although the Atmanists (attavadi) insist that atta
          has nothing to do with the five khandhas, they credit it
          with ownership of the body, etc., permanent residence in
          the body, subjectivity and feeling: and, hence, in
          effect they identify it with the five khandhas. The
          ego-illusion is rooted in the khandhas and a man can
          free himself completely from it only when he becomes
          aware of the real nature of khandhas through
          contemplation.

          Of the four upadana, the first upadana (clinging to
          sensuality) is the developed form of craving (tanha).
          The other three upadanas differ only as regards their
          objects; basically they all relate to beliefs, viz.,
          belief in ego, belief in the efficacy of practices other
          than those of the Eightfold Path, and any false belief
          other than those in the category of the other two
          upadana. All false beliefs arise in connection with
          craving. Men cling to a belief because they like it.
          Thus there is no doubt that all the four upadanas stem
          from craving and hence the Buddha's teaching: "From
          tanha there arises upadana."

          In point of fact, craving is the cause and clinging is
          the effect. Craving for sensual pleasure, ego-belief, or
          practices irrelevant to the holy path or other false
          beliefs is the cause, and this craving develops into
          clinging to sensuality, ego-belief, etc., and thus
          becomes effects.

          Clinging Leads To Becoming

          Upadana leads to bhava (becoming). There are two kinds
          of bhava, viz., kammabhava and upapattibhava.

          (1) Kammabhava

          Kammabhava means the kamma that leads to rebirth. The
          Buddha describes it as the punnabhi, apunnabhi and
          anenjabhi sankharas that lead to lower sensual world or
          the higher material and immaterial worlds. He also
          identifies kammabhava with all kammas that give rise to
          new existence.

          Of the three sankharas, punnabhi sankhara comprises the
          eight wholesome volitions (cetana) in sensual sphere and
          five wholesome volitions in the material (rupa) sphere.
          Apunnabhi sankhara is the group of twelve unwholesome
          volitions. Anenjabhi sankhara means the four wholesome
          volitions in immaterial sphere. Also leading to rebirth
          are the kammas that arise together with the wholesome
          volitions in sensual sphere, viz., having no covetous
          thoughts or designs about another's possessions, having
          no design against another person's life and holding
          right views. These kammas are implicit in punnabhi
          sankhara. In short, kammabhava is the good or bad
          volition that leads to rebirth.

          (2) Upapattibhava

          Upapattibhava is of nine kinds. (1) kammabhava means the
          nama-rupas of living beings in the sensual world. In
          other words, kammabhava refers to existences in the hell
          and the worlds of devas, mankind, animals and petas. (2)
          rupabhava - the khandhas of brahmas with rupas. (3)
          arupabhava - namakhandhas of brahmas with no rupas. (4)
          sannibhava - nama-rupas of beings with gross
          perceptions, that is beings in 29 abodes other than
          asanni nevasanni abodes. (5) asanaribhava - nama-rupa of
          asanni-brahmas. (6) Nevasanninasanni - namakhandhas of
          higher brahmas. (7) ekavokarabhava - the bhava with only
          rupakkhandha. (8) catuvokarabhava - the bhava with four
          namakhandhas. (9) pancavokarabhava - of bhava with five
          nama-rupakkhandhas.

          In short, upapattibhava means the nama-rupas of the new
          existence that results from kamma. It comprises the
          vinnana, nama-rupa, salayatana, phassa and vedana.

          The bhava that arises from upadana is basically
          kammabhava, the other upapattibhava being merely its
          by-product.

          From contact with six pleasant or unpleasant
          sense-objects there arise six pleasant or unpleasant
          feelings.

          Feelings lead to craving and craving develops into
          clinging; clinging to sensual objects may become
          excessive to the point of craving for union with one's
          family in a future life or attainment of Nibbana hand in
          hand with one's beloved. The excessive degree of a man's
          upadana is evident in the story of the merchant Mendaka.

          Story Of Mendaka

          Mendaka was a rich merchant in a previous life. In the
          face of a famine, his stock of provisions gradually ran
          out and at last he had to send away his attendants and
          was left with his wife, a son, his daughter-in-law and a
          slave. His wife had cooked rice that was barely enough
          for their consumption, and they were about to eat it
          when a paccekabuddha appeared to receive food.

          At the sight of the paccekabuddha, the merchant thought
          of his bad kamma, that is, lack of dana in a previous
          life that had now brought about his starvation. He then
          offered his share of rice to the paccekabuddha and
          prayed for abundant supply of food and reunion with the
          members of his household in his future lives. His wife
          too donated her share of rice and expressed a similar
          wish in her prayer. The son and his wife followed suit
          and prayed in the same vein, that is, for unlimited
          supply of food and money as well as reunion with the
          same wife, husband, parents and slaves.

          The prayers of the merchant and his family clearly point
          to the powerful influence of upadana in the sensual
          sphere and most people today are no less subject to the
          same kind of attachment. But more appalling is the
          upadana of the slave Punna. After offering his share of
          rice, he prayed for abundance of food and rebirth as the
          slave of the same family! It never occurred to him to
          pray for rebirth as a king or a merchant; his attachment
          to his masters and mistresses was so strong that he
          wanted only to be their slave hereafter.

          Once there was a village headman who stood well with
          Government officials. Those were the days when under
          British rule most of the high ranking officials were
          Englishmen. The headman took much delight in paying
          respect to them. He said that he enjoyed saying, Phaya,
          "Yes, my Lord," when he was called by an officer. His
          attachment was essentially the same as that of Punna.

          The paccekabuddha blessed them and departed. By means of
          his psychic power they saw him fly back to the Himalayas
          and share the food with five hundred other fellow
          buddhas.

          On that very day, the merchant and his family found
          their acts of dana bearing fruit wonderfully. They found
          the rice pot full of rice. They ate to their hearts'
          content, but the pot was always full of rice. They found
          their granaries, too, overflowing with grains.

          Their prayers were fulfilled in the lifetime of the
          Buddha-Gotama for they became members of the same
          household in Baddiya, a city of the Magadha country. The
          news of the fulfilment of their prayers was so unusual
          and amazing that the king made an inquiry through a
          minister and found that it was indeed true. This story
          is mentioned in Vinaya pitaka.

          Upadana And Kammabhava

          When the sensual desire for an object develops into an
          intense craving, a person becomes desperate and tries to
          secure it by fair means or foul. Thefts, robberies,
          frauds, murders and so forth that are rampant nowadays
          stem from upadana. Some crimes are rooted in sensual
          upadana while others arise from one of the three kinds
          of illusion based on upadana. People commit crimes not
          only because of their unwholesome desire but also
          because of their blind attachment to wives, husbands,
          etc.

          The following is a story illustrative of the evil
          kammabhava resulting from sensual upadana.

          Puppharatta Jataka

          Long ago, there was a poor man in Benares. He had only a
          suit of thick clothes. He washed it to wear during the
          Tazaungdine festival, but his wife disliked the white
          clothes and craved for a garment of pink colour. All his
          efforts to reason with her being in vain, the man at
          last sneaked into the royal garden at night to steal the
          flower that was to be used for dyeing his wife's
          garment. He fell into the hands of the guards and was
          ordered by the king to be impaled. He suffered terribly
          with the crows pecking at his eyes. Yet he murmured that
          his physical pain was nothing when compared to the
          mental suffering that overwhelmed him when he thought of
          the non-fulfilment of his wife's desire and his
          inability to enjoy the festival together with her. So
          crying over his ill-luck, he died and landed in hell.

          Today, there may be many people who do evil due to the
          pressure of those whom they love. All these evil deeds
          comprise kammas stemming from upadana and leading to the
          lower worlds. So Visuddhimagga says: "Under the
          influence of sensual upadana, people do evil in deeds,
          words and thought because of their craving for sensual
          objects in the present life and their desire to preserve
          the objects in their possession. Such evil deeds usually
          lead to the lower worlds."

          Right And Wrong Good Kamma

          Some good deeds are right but some are wrong. The
          so-called good deeds that some people do are harmful and
          as such they are evil kammas. For example, some people
          believe that it is a good deed to put an end to the
          suffering of some animals by cutting short their span of
          life. Every living being is afraid to die or suffer pain
          and it is certainly wrong to cause pain and death to
          animals.

          Some people also consider it a good deed to bring about
          the speedy death of a person who is suffering from an
          incurable, painful disease. But the patient does not
          want to die although he wants to be free from pain. Even
          if he expresses the desire to die, it is wrong from the
          Buddhist point of view to cause the death of a living
          being and if one directly or indirectly causes the
          premature death of a parent by "mercy killing", it is a
          grave kammic offence that leads to hell.

          "Craving for the sensual pleasures of the human and
          deva-worlds, and misled by false teachings, etc., some
          people do misdeeds such as killing for the attainment of
          their object. But as a result of their evil kamma, they
          land in the lower worlds after death."

          According to the commentary, misconceptions of those
          people arise from false teachers, lack of good kamma in
          the past and the failure to guard oneself. Reliance on
          evil teachers leads to evil kamma, much evil kamma in
          the previous life makes it easy to acquire evil views
          and evil habits, and lack of self-vigilance makes one an
          easy prey to temptation.

          True religion is called saddhamma "the religion of the
          good man". Those who follow the true religion hear good
          teachings, avoid evil deeds, evil words and evil
          thoughts, hold right views about the future life, kamma
          and its fruits, etc., cultivate good thoughts and
          practise dana, sila and bhavana for their welfare.

          The practice of alms-giving, morality and mental
          development is true and good dhamma because it is
          harmless and acceptable to everybody. Nobody will blame
          a man who avoids killing, stealing, abusing and other
          misdeeds. The good deeds which we do for our welfare
          here and now or hereafter are wholesome kammas that stem
          from upadana in the sensual sphere. These kammas lead to
          rebirth in the human or deva worlds. So the
          Visuddhimagga says: "Those who hear the true teaching
          believe in kamma and the efficacy of good deeds as
          passport to better life in the sensual worlds of rich
          men, aristocrats or divine beings. So they do good deeds
          under the influence of kamupadana and are reborn in the
          human and deva worlds."

          Kamma and Rebirth

          As it is said, "Bhava paccaya jati," rebirth occurs in
          the human and deva worlds or in the lower worlds because
          of good or evil kamma-process. So rebirth stems from
          kammas which result from clinging (upadana) and craving
          that is rooted in the contact between the six
          sense-objects and the corresponding sense-organs
          (ayatana).

          In other words, there arise vinnana, nama-rupa,
          salayatana, phassa and vedana in the present life as the
          avijja sankhara, etc., in a previous existence and now
          on top of that, tanha and upadana give rise to new
          kamma, thereby providing the ground for new rebirth. The
          situation is like that of a man who has committed a
          crime while he is in prison for a previous conviction,
          or that of a man who has incurred new debt before he has
          fully settled his old debt.

          Such new kammas accumulate by the thousands in a single
          lifetime. Under certain conditions one of these kammas
          becomes a death-bed vision and leads to rebirth while
          other kammas will create rebirth at other times in the
          life-cycle. If there are residual kammas from the
          previous lives that possess great force, they take
          precedence over present kamma, appear as death-bed
          visions and create rebirth in the lower or higher
          worlds. The post-mortem destiny of the person in such
          cases is determined by the nature of kamma.

          Four Kinds Of Kamma

          Kamma is of four kinds, according to the way in which it
          bears fruit. (1) //garukamma// - weighty kamma, (2)
          //bahula or acinnaka kamma// - habitual kamma, (3)
          //asanna kamma// - death proximate kamma and (4)
          //katatta// kamma - stored-up kamma.

          //Garukamma// is killing parents or an Arahat or causing
          injury to a Buddha or causing a schism in the Sangha. As
          for the good //garukammas//, there are the good kammas
          of the material and non-material worlds. The
          //garukammas// head off the fruition of other kammas and
          lead to rebirth, rupa and arupa jhanas among them
          leading to rupa and arupa rebirth.

          The evil garukammas lead direct to hell after death;
          hence, the term //pancanantriyakammas// - the five great
          evil kammas leading invariably to hell. The man who
          kills his father or mother unknowingly or knowingly can
          never attain jhana or the path and fruition (maggaphala)
          in the present life; he is bound to land in hell after
          his death. He cannot attain jhana or the path nor can
          any good kamma save him from hell. This is evident in
          the story of Ajatasattu.

          Story Of Ajatasattu

          Ajatasattu was the son of Bimbisara, the king of Magadha
          state, a devoted follower of the Buddha. Prior to the
          birth of the prince, the queen had the desire to drink
          the blood from the right arm of the king. When the king
          learnt this, he had the blood taken out and fulfilled
          her desire. The soothsayers then predicted that the
          child in the queen's womb would become the king's enemy.
          Hence the name Ajatasattu - the potential enemy of the
          father while still in the mother's womb.

          The queen tried to abort the child but as the king's
          kamma and the child's kamma would have it otherwise, she
          did not succeed in her attempt. The king had her
          pregnancy well protected and the child was born. When he
          came of age, he was appointed heir-apparent.

          Then the young prince fell into the clutches of the
          evil-minded Devadatta who misused his psychic power for
          his selfish ends. Turning himself into a boy with a
          snake coiled around his waist, he appeared before
          Ajatasattu and then showed himself as a bhikkhu. The
          prince was deeply impressed, and no wonder for people
          are very much interested in miracles and they have blind
          faith in anyone who can perform them. The prince held
          Devadatta in high esteem and became his devoted
          follower.

          Then Devadatta made another move for the success of his
          evil design. He told the prince that since people did
          not live long, he (the prince) should kill his father
          and become king while still in the prime of his life;
          and that he (Devadatta) on his part would kill the
          Buddha. The prince failed in his attempt on the life of
          the king but when the latter learnt of his desire, he
          handed over his kingship to his son.

          The transfer of power nonetheless came short of
          Devadatta's scheme. On his advice, Ajatasattu imprisoned
          his father and starved him. The queen was the only
          person who was permitted to visit the prison and see the
          king. She secretly brought food for the king by various
          means and at last she was forbidden to visit the prison.
          From that day, the king got nothing to eat but still he
          managed to keep himself in good physical condition by
          pacing on the floor. Then by the king's order, the
          barbers caused such injury to the feet of his father as
          to make it impossible for him to walk. According to the
          commentary, he was thus injured because in a previous
          life he walked with footwear on the platform of a pagoda
          and trod with unwashed feet on a mat meant for the
          bhikkhus.

          King Bimbisara died probably at the age of 67. His son
          Ajatasattu was not evil-minded at heart. His good nature
          was evident in his devotion to the Buddha after he had
          wronged his father, his adoration and enshrinement of
          the Buddha relics and whole-hearted support which he
          gave to the First Council. It was his association with
          the evil teacher that led him astray to the point of
          patricide. His life affords us a lesson that we should
          specially bear in mind.

          On the very day of his father's death, his wife gave
          birth to a son. On hearing the news, he became excited
          and overwhelmed with great affection for his child. This
          reminded him of his father and he ordered the release of
          the imprisoned king, but it was too late. When later on
          he learnt from his mother how much he was loved and
          cared for by his father in his childhood, he was seized
          with remorse. His life became wretched and miserable. He
          could not sleep at night, haunted by the visions of hell
          and smitten by conscience for his crime against his
          father, a devout lay disciple of the Buddha at that.

          So led by the physician Jivaka, he went to see the
          Buddha. At that time the Lord was surrounded by over a
          thousand bhikkhus. But as they were in a contemplative
          mood, all was quiet with none speaking or making any
          movement of their hands or feet. Being deeply impressed,
          the king said, "May my son Udayabaddha be blessed with
          the kind of serenity which these bhikkhus possess!"
          Perhaps he feared lest his son should come to know how
          he seized power and try to follow in his father's
          footsteps. But later his fear did become a reality for
          down to his great grandson, the sons ascended the throne
          after killing their fathers.

          King Ajatasattu asked the Buddha about the immediate
          benefits of the life in the holy order. The Lord
          enlarged on the benefits accruing from the holy life -
          the lay follower's reverence for the bhikkhu, moral
          purity, the first jhana and other higher states of
          consciousness in the mundane sphere, psychic powers,
          extinction of defilements and the attainments of the
          holy path.

          After hearing the sermon, Ajatasattu formally declared
          himself a disciple of the Buddha. He would have attained
          the first stage on the path but for his patricide.
          Nevertheless, from that time he had peace of mind and
          after his death, he was spared the terrors of Avici hell
          that would have been in store for him had he not met the
          Buddha.

          Habitual And Death-Bed Kammas

          The other three weighty kammas, viz., killing an Arahat,
          causing injury to the Buddha and wilfully causing a
          schism in the Sangha are also bound to drag the offender
          to hell.

          The other type of kamma that bears fruit is habitual
          kamma, called //bahula or acinna kamma//. Failure to
          lead a good moral life may become habitual if no step is
          taken to remove it, and it will have evil kammic effect
          in a future life. So laymen should live up to the five
          precepts and in case of any breach verbally affirm the
          will to guard one's moral life more vigilantly. Moral
          purity is equally vital to the life of a bhikkhu.
          Failure to make amends for any deliberate or
          unintentional violation of a vinaya rule will create
          habitual kamma and so the bhikkhu should seek to regain
          moral purity through confession and reaffirmation of his
          will to preserve it.

          Alms-giving, reverence for parents and teachers,
          contemplation of the Buddha, practice of meditation and
          so forth, which one does daily are also habitual kammas
          that tend to bear immediate fruits.

          In the absence of habitual kamma, what we do at the last
          moment of our life (//asanna kamma//: death-bed kamma)
          produces kammic results. In one Abhidhamma book, it is
          described as being more potent than habitual kamma but
          perhaps this is true only in exceptional cases. As the
          commentaries say, the habitual kammas probably take
          precedence and bear fruits.

          Nevertheless, in the light of stories in ancient
          Buddhist literature we can certainly rely on death-bed
          kamma. A dying man who had killed people for over 50
          years attained the deva-world after offering food to
          Sariputta and hearing his discourse. This story finds an
          echo in the experience of a. Sinhalese fisherman who
          landed in the deva world after his encounter with a
          thera just before his death.

          As productive as the positive death-bed kamma is its
          negative counterpart. A Sinhalese layman who practised
          meditation for many years was disappointed as he had
          never seen even the light. He then concluded that the
          Buddha's teaching was not the way to liberation and
          because of this false view he landed in the peta world
          after his death.

          Failure to encounter the light, etc., in the practice of
          meditation may be due to wrong method, wrong effort or
          lack of basic potential (parami). In the time of the
          Buddha, a monk called Sunakkhatta attained divine eye
          but not the divine-ear because he did not have the
          potential for it and, besides, there was his bad kamma
          as a hindrance.

          So the yogi need not be disheartened if his practice
          does not produce the desired effect. By and large,
          practice along the right path leads to unusual
          experiences.

          With tranquillity and purity of mind, the material
          object of contemplation and the contemplating
          consciousness become clearly distinct as do their causal
          relation and their ceaseless, rapid arising and
          dissolution. At that time, the yogi sees the light but
          even if he does not see it clearly he experiences joy,
          ecstasy, etc., for joy, ecstasy, tranquillity,
          equanimity, etc., form the links of enlightenment
          (//bojjhanga//) that are so vital to the development of
          vipassana insight. Reflection on namarupa by itself does
          not lead to these higher states of consciousness.

          In the absence of habitual or death-bed kamma, there is
          kattata kamma which means the kamma that one has done
          once in a lifetime.

          Birth And Suffering

          The role of kamma in the chain of causation is
          underscored in the teaching sankhara paccaya vinnanani -
          "From sankhara there arises rebirth consciousness",
          which we have already explained in detail. The dying
          person is attached to the signs and visions relating to
          his kamma and so on his death there follow kamma-based
          rupas together with rebirth-consciousness conditioned by
          his death-bed attachment.

          Contact with the sense-objects gives rise to feeling
          which in turn produces desire. It does not matter
          whether the feeling is pleasant or unpleasant. Pleasant
          feeling creates attachment to pleasant objects while
          unpleasant feeling makes us crave for pleasant objects.
          When the desire becomes strong and develops into frantic
          craving (upadana), it results in activity or effort for
          its fulfilment. People do good or bad deeds which they
          hope will help to satisfy their needs and desires. It is
          this kammabhava rooted in craving that gives rise to
          rebirth. Rebirth is bound up with suffering regardless
          of the world in which it takes place.

          There is no need to dwell on the sufferings in the
          animal and other lower worlds. Among human beings, too,
          suffering is an inescapable fact of life. A man's
          suffering begins while he is in the mother's womb. He
          has to work hard for his living, he is harassed by
          bullies and tyrants. Even if he escapes from the dukkha
          inherent in the struggle for survival, he will finally
          have to face old age, sickness and death. From the time
          of his conception, man is headed towards these
          inevitable evils of life. He is approaching them at
          every moment. He may live an apparently care-free, happy
          life but his namarupas are forever in the process of
          ageing and disintegration.

          There is an Indian story which stresses the
          inevitability of old age, sickness and death. A man
          being afraid of old age rose into the air with the
          elixir of life in his mouth and hid in the sky. Another
          man hid under the sea to escape sickness and still
          another hid in a cave in Himalayas to avoid death. When
          their sons searched for them they found that the first
          man had become old with all the ugly signs of
          decrepitude, the second man was sick unto death and the
          third man was dead.

          Everyone is subject to old age, sickness and death. Once
          a man is reborn, there is nothing that will protect him
          from these evils of existence. Hence, the Buddha's
          saying in the Dhammapada that there is no place in the
          sky, on land or in the sea, where one can escape death.

          Grief And Lamentation

          Death and the other two evils of life are inevitable so
          long as rebirth takes place within the framework of
          disintegrating nama-rupa. Rebirth leads also to grief,
          anxiety, lamentations and anguish.

          We grieve when a member of the family dies. The grief is
          overwhelming when we lose someone, e.g. parents or a
          husband on whom we have to depend or someone, e.g. a son
          or a daughter whom we love dearly. Another cause for
          grief is the loss of material possessions through
          evil-minded officials, robbers, thieves, destructive
          fires, floods, cyclones, and hated heirs. Grief is also
          caused by the affliction of disease and decline of
          health. Some sick persons are so much depressed that
          their mental states become a hindrance to their
          recovery. In the case of morally scrupulous monks and
          laymen, any damage to moral life gives rise to anxiety.
          Thus, the rishi Isisinga suffered terrible anguish when
          his moral integrity was undermined by the seduction of a
          goddess. Anxiety and repentance also torment those who
          realize their mistakes after having rejected the right
          view in favour of a wrong one under the guidance of a
          false teacher.

          Besides, there are many other misfortunes in life, e.g.
          accidents, viz., victimization by robbers, etc.,
          hardship in earning one's living and, securing the
          necessities of life and so forth that occasion grief,
          anguish and lamentation.

          There is no need to dwell on the physical sufferings in
          hell and the animal and peta-worlds. Because of his
          consciousness, man also suffers anguish whenever he is
          in contact with unpleasant sense-objects. As he has thus
          to suffer mentally into the bargain, it is for him
          something like adding insult to injury. This does not
          apply to the Arahat or the noble one at the anagami
          stage, for being free from irritation (dosa) he remains
          unperturbed in the face of physical suffering and so
          does the mindful yogi who is free from ego-illusion that
          tends to add to the sense of self-pity. Hence, the
          importance of the Buddha's teaching that we should be
          aware of unpleasant feeling when we suffer from it.

          People are unhappy when they think of the frustrations
          and misfortunes that beset them in the past or at
          present or that may beset them in future. They feel
          bitter and upset when they find themselves in distress
          and burdened with misfortunes.

          All these sufferings are rooted in rebirth. Life is all
          suffering without the ego and without anything good even
          if there were such ego to enjoy it.

          According to the doctrine of Paticcasamuppada, the only
          thing that links one existence with another is the
          cause-and-effect relationship. From craving, kammic
          effort, etc., based on ignorance in one existence, there
          arise five effects, viz., consciousness, body and mind,
          sense-organs, contact, and feeling. These effects begin
          with rebirth and end in death with old age, anxiety and
          other sufferings in between them.

          This teaching of the Buddha will not appeal to common
          people who harbour illusions of happiness and
          ego-entity. But impersonality and suffering are the
          unmistakable facts of existence and life in the
          deva-world is no exception. Some earth-bound devas have
          to struggle hard for survival and are more miserable
          than human beings. They are called //vinipatika// devas
          and they comprise ghosts, devils, etc., that belong to
          lower order of devas. Some devas in heavens are not
          happy because they do not have good abodes and enough
          attendants. Even Sakka, the king of devas, admitted to
          the elderly thera Mahakassapa that he was not very much
          luminous as his attainment of deva-world was due to the
          good kamma which he did long before the proclamation of
          Buddha-dhamma and that he had to hide himself when he
          saw the devas who outshone him as they had done good
          kamma in the time of the Buddha.

          Thus, Sakka was not always happy and so were his female
          attendants who told Mahakassapa that they were wretched
          and miserable since they counted for little among the
          high-ranking queen-goddesses. Some devas become unhappy
          on the approach of death that is heralded by the
          withering of their bedecked flowers, the sweating from
          their armpits and other signs of senility. Some devas
          die suddenly while indulging in celestial pleasure just
          like a man whose life is cut off by stroke. Death may be
          a matter of seconds like the extinction of the flame of
          a candle. This is borne out by the story of Subrahma
          deva.

          Story Of Subrahma Deva

          Subrahma deva was having a good time when his
          attendants, the goddesses who were singing and plucking
          flowers on the tree died suddenly and landed in hell.
          Subrahma deva saw them suffering in hell and at the same
          time he foresaw that he too would die in a few days and
          share the fate of his attendants. Being much frightened,
          he came to the Buddha and asked the Lord to show him the
          place where he could live without fear. The Lord then
          says that he sees no way to salvation for every living
          being other than the practice of //bojjhanga// dhamma
          (links of enlightenment such as mindfulness), the
          //dhutanga// (ascetic practices) and //sammappadhana//
          (right exertion), that serve to put an end to
          defilements, the control of senses (indriyasamvarasile),
          the control that helps to keep off the defilements and
          Nibbana which means renunciation of everything.

          On hearing this, the deva and his attendants attained
          the first stage on the holy path. What we should note
          here is the sudden death of the goddesses. The fate of
          those who thus die suddenly while engaged in the pursuit
          of pleasure is indeed terrible for they are likely to
          land in hell as a result of unwholesome kammic impulses.
          If there is any sign that heralds the approach of death,
          it creates fear and adds to their suffering.

          Suffering that stems from attachment to pleasure is not
          confined to the sensual sphere. For it is the lot, too,
          of the Brahmas in their immaterial or formless (arupa)
          world. In the Brahma world there is no pleasure of sex
          or any other sensual pleasure. The Brahmas only see,
          hear or think and the objects of their seeing, etc.,
          have no sexual overtones. But as Visuddhimagga says,
          some people develop a craving for the sensual pleasures
          of the Brahma world because they believe either through
          hearsay or speculation that such pleasures are superior
          to those of the human and deva-worlds. It is no other
          than their sensual craving that leads to the attainment
          of rupajhana, arupajhana, samapatti and finally lands
          them in the rupa or arupa brahma worlds.

          It is not surprising that some people think or speak of
          the sensual pleasure in the Brahma world. Those who are
          well aware of the true teachings of the Buddha will
          reject the idea but it probably appeals to ignorant
          people. The Indian religious books portray Brahma with
          his wife and some regard even Nibbana as a heavenly
          abode with celestial mansions where we can dwell with
          our families and attendants.

          Kamaupadana Means All Kinds Of Excessive Craving

          Kamaupadana here means not only the excessive craving
          for sensual pleasure. It means also the developed forms
          of craving for the material and immaterial (rupa and
          arupa) worlds. Hence, according to Visuddhimagga, the
          yogi can do away with this inordinate craving only at
          the last stage of the holy path and it is this craving
          that lies at the root of every effort to attain rupa or
          arupa jhana. For ordinary people such jhana means rupa
          or arupa kammic effort based on sensual craving and this
          leads to rebirth in rupa or arupa world of Brahmas. From
          the time of rebirth there arises the ceaseless ageing
          (jara) of nama-rupa or either of the two phenomena of
          life. The senility of the Brahma is not apparent like
          that of a human being but still it leads to decay, and
          when his course is run, he cannot avoid death.

          Being free from hatred, the life of a Brahma is not
          subject to grief, worry, anxiety and so forth; and the
          lack of physical sensitivity makes him free from
          physical suffering. He cannot, however, escape birth,
          old age and death that are inherent in every kind of
          existence.

          So escape from old age and death presupposes the effort
          to rule out the possibility of rebirth. In order to
          avoid rebirth, we must seek to avoid wholesome or
          unwholesome kamma and negation of kammic existence calls
          for negation of attachment and craving. For this
          purpose, the mental process must end in feeling and stop
          short of developing the desire for anything. This denial
          of desire through the contemplations, anicca, dukkha and
          anatta of everything arising from the senses is the only
          way to avoid craving, rebirth and other links in the
          causal sequence that leads to old age and death. This
          means the temporary extinction of suffering which the
          yogi can overcome once and forever when he develops
          vipassana insight on the holy path.

          Attachment To Belief As The Cause Of Rebirth

          Ditthupadana means the attachment to the view which
          rejects future life and kamma. Hence, ucchedaditthi
          which insists on annihilation after death is a kind of
          ditthupadana. A person who holds such a belief will have
          no need to do good or avoid evil. He will do nothing for
          other-worldly welfare and seek to enjoy life as much as
          possible by fair means or foul. As he has no moral
          scruples, most of his acts are unwholesome kammas that
          create death-bed visions and lead him to the lower
          worlds. This is evident in the story of Nandaka peta.

          Nandaka was a general in the time of king Pingala who
          ruled Surattha country that lay north of the present
          province of Bombay in West India. He clung to false
          views e.g. that it was useless to give alms and so
          forth. After his death he became a peta on a banyan
          tree, but when his daughter offered food to a monk and
          shared her merit with him, he had an unlimited supply of
          celestial drinks and food. He then realized the truth of
          the kammic law and repented of his adherence of false
          views in his previous life. One day, he led king Pingala
          to his abode and entertained the king and his followers
          to a celestial feast. The king was much surprised and in
          response to his inquiry, the peta gave an account of his
          rebirth in the lower worlds as a kammic result of his
          false views, immorality and vehement opposition to
          alms-giving; and the sudden change of his fortune
          following his sharing of merit acquired by his daughter.
          He also described the suffering that he would have to
          undergo after his death, the terrible suffering in hell
          that he was to share with those who held wrong views and
          vilified the holy men during their earthly existence.

          The moral of the story is that attachment to wrong views
          (e.g. that an act has no kammic result, etc.) leads to
          unwholesome acts and rebirth in the lower worlds.

          The commentary also says that clinging to uccheda
          (annihilation) belief leads to deva or Brahma worlds if
          annihilation is supposed to follow demise on those
          higher planes of existence, but devas and Brahmas
          apparently do not believe in their annihilation after
          death. By and large, the belief in annihilation makes
          people prone to misdeeds.

          Kammic deeds may also be motivated by eternity belief
          (sassataditthi). The belief creates the illusion of
          personal identity, the illusion which makes a man
          believe that it is his permanent self that will have to
          bear the consequences of his good or bad deeds in a
          future life. So he devotes himself to what he regards as
          good deeds. Some of his deeds may be bad in fact, but in
          any case his deeds, whether good or bad, that arise from
          eternity belief lead to rebirth and suffering.

          Still, another mainspring of kammic deed is
          superstitious belief. There are many superstitions, for
          example, that seeing a man of low class brings about
          misfortune, that the beehive or a guana in a house is a
          sure omen of poverty. Under the influence of such
          beliefs, a person may do evil, such as treating an
          outcaste cruelly or killing the bees. This is borne out
          by the Cittasambhuta jataka.

          In the jataka the bodhisatta was a man of low chandala
          class called Citta. Ananda was then his cousin named
          Sambhuta. They made their living by dancing with
          bamboos. One day, the daughter of a merchant and the
          daughter of a high-caste brahmin who were very
          superstitious went for a picnic with their attendants.
          At the sight of the two dancers, they considered it an
          ill omen and returned home. Their irate followers then
          beat the two men for denying them the pleasure of the
          picnic.

          The two dancers then went to Taxila and disguised as
          brahmins, they devoted themselves to learning. Citta
          became a student leader by virtue of his intelligence.
          One day, their teacher sent them to a place where they
          were required to recite the brahmanical parittas. There
          having got his mouth burnt by drinking hot milk
          unmindfully, Sambhuta uttered, "Khalu, Khalu" in his
          dialect and Citta was so absent-minded as to say,
          "niggala, niggala" ("spit out, spit out"); these slips
          of the tongue led to their undoing for their high caste
          brahmin students found out their secret. They were
          beaten and expelled from school.

          On the advice of their teacher they became rishis
          (forest ascetics or hermits). After their death they
          passed on to the animal world, first as two deers and as
          two eagles in their next existence. Then Citta became
          the son of the chief Brahmin and remembered his three
          previous lives. He led the life of a hermit and attained
          jhana and psychic powers. Sambhuta became a king, he
          remembered his low caste life as a chandala and spent
          his time in the pursuit of sensual pleasure.

          By means of his psychic power, Citta knew his brother's
          spiritual immaturity and after waiting for 50 years he
          came to the king's garden. The king recognized the
          hermit as his brother in a previous life and was
          prepared to share royal pleasures with him. But being
          aware of the kammic effects of good and bad deeds, the
          bodhisatta had pledged himself to a life of
          self-restraint, renunciation and detachment. He reminded
          the king of their close associations in their previous
          lives, to wit, as low-caste chandalas, as deers and as
          birds. His object was to point out the erratic course of
          kammic life and to urge the king to become an ascetic
          for further spiritual progress. But it was hard for
          Sambhuta to give up his worldly pleasures. So the
          bodhisatta returned to the Himalayas. Then the king
          became disenchanted with his worldly pleasures and went
          to the Himalayas where he was welcomed by the hermit.
          There, as a hermit he devoted himself to spiritual
          exercises and attained jhana and psychic powers.

          Superstition And Evil Rebirth

          What we wish to emphasize in this story is the evil
          kammas that arise from superstitions. The role of
          superstition as the cause of evil deeds is also evident
          in the story of Koka, the hunter.

          In the time of the Buddha, there was a hunter called
          Koka in a certain village. One day he set out with his
          dogs to hunt in the forest. On the way he met a monk who
          was out on his begging round. The hunter considered this
          encounter an omen that boded no good. As luck would have
          it, he did not get any animal for food on that day. On
          his return he again met the monk. Now blind with fury
          and ill-will, he set his dogs on the monk. The monk had
          to run and climb up a tree.

          He sat on a branch that was not very high. The hunter
          poked at the feet of the monk with the sharp end of an
          arrow. The latter had to lift his feet one after the
          other and at last his robe got loose and slipped down.
          It fell upon the hunter and seeing him thus wrapped up
          in the robe, the dogs mistook him for the monk and
          attacked him. Thus, he was killed by his own dogs. Then
          realizing that they had killed their master, the dogs
          ran away.

          The monk got down from the tree and reported the matter
          to the Buddha. Thereupon, the Lord says, "The foolish
          man wrongs a person who has never wronged another. He
          wrongs a person who is free from defilements, but his
          evil deed boomerangs on him just like the particle of
          dust that returns to us when we throw it against the
          wind."

          Here, the hunter's terrible death, his rebirth in the
          lower worlds and suffering arise from an evil deed that
          in turn is rooted in his superstition. Some people get
          alarmed when an astrologer says that the position of
          planets bodes no good for them. So they offer flowers
          and candles to the Buddha image, give dana to the monks,
          hear the sermons and practise meditation. Some have the
          parittas recited by monks to stave off the impending
          evil that they associate with their unpleasant dreams.
          Their good deeds lead to good rebirth, but like the
          other rebirths that stem from evil deeds, it too is
          fraught with suffering.

          Some ignorant people do evil to keep off the misfortunes
          that might befall them. The jatakas mention the animal
          sacrifice of some kings that involves the killing of
          four goats, four horses, four men and so forth as
          propitiatory offerings to gods. On one occasion, this
          kind of rite was planned by king Kosala in the time of
          the Buddha.

          The king had taken a fancy to a married woman and so one
          day he sent her husband on an errand to a distant place.
          Should he fail to accomplish the task entrusted to him
          and return to the capital on the same day, he was to be
          punished. The man carried out the king's order and
          returned before sunset, but the city gate was closed and
          so being unable to enter the city, he spent the night at
          Jetavana monastery.

          Overwhelmed with lust and evil desire, the king could
          hardly sleep in his palace. He heard the voices of the
          four men who were suffering in hell for having committed
          adultery in their previous lives. It was perhaps by
          virtue of the Buddha's will and psychic power that the
          king heard these voices from hell. The king was
          frightened and in the morning, he sought the advice of
          the Brahmin counsellor. The Brahmin said that the voices
          portended imminent misfortune and that in order to stave
          it off, the king should sacrifice elephants, horses,
          etc., each kind of animals numbering a hundred.

          The king made preparations for the animal sacrifice. How
          cruel is human nature that dictates the sacrifice of
          thousands of lives to save one's own life. Among the
          potential victims there were human beings, and hearing
          their cries, queen Mallika approached the king and asked
          him to seek the advice of the Buddha.

          The Buddha assured the king that the voices had nothing
          to do with him. They were the voices of four young men
          who, having seduced married women in the time of Kassapa
          Buddha, were now suffering in Lohakumbhi hell. They were
          now repentent and belatedly trying to express their
          desire to do good after their release from hell. The
          king was very much frightened and vowed never to lust
          for another man's wife. He told the Buddha how the
          previous night had seemed very long because he could not
          sleep. The man who had fetched what the king wanted said
          too that he had travelled one yojana the previous day.
          Thereupon, the Buddha uttered the verse: "To one who
          cannot sleep, the night seems long; to the weary
          traveller, a yojana is a long distance. Similarly, for
          the foolish man who does not know the true dhamma, the
          life-cycle is long."

          After hearing this gatha, many people attained sotapanna
          and other stages on the holy path. The king ordered the
          release of all living beings that were to be sacrificed.
          But for the Buddha's words, he would have done
          unwholesome kammas, and this story shows how
          superstitious beliefs lead to evil deeds.

          Fanaticism Or Religious Upadana

          Good or evil kammas are also born of religious
          attachments. By and large, people believe that theirs is
          the only true religion, that all other religions are
          false. So they try to spread their religion, convert
          other people by force or otherwise persecute the
          non-believers. All these evils had their origin in
          religious upadana or fanaticism.

          Again kammic deeds may stem from attachment to ideology
          or views on worldly matters. Some people seek to impose
          their creed on other people by every means in their
          power; they propagate it in various ways and they
          discredit or slander or undermine the unity of those who
          do not agree with them. All these efforts and activities
          form the kammabhava due to upadana.

          In short, all obsessions with practices, and beliefs
          other than the ego-belief mean excessive attachment to
          views that leads to kammic deeds.

          Silabbatupadana - Attachment To Wrong Practices

          Some people believe that they can attain salvation
          through certain practices that have nothing to do with
          the Four Noble Truths. Such a belief is called
          silabbatupadana. It is silabbatupadana, too, to worship
          animals, to adopt the animal way of life, to perform
          certain rites and ceremonies in the hope of attaining
          salvation.

          According to Visuddhimagga, some people rely on these
          practices as the way to salvation and do kammic deeds
          that lead to rebirth in the human world, the deva world
          and the material (rupa) and immaterial (arupa) worlds.

          The Visuddhimagga refers only to kammas leading to the
          human and other higher worlds. It makes no mention of
          the kammas leading to the lower worlds. It does not
          follow, however, that silabbatupadana does not give rise
          to bad kammas. The commentary does not mention the evil
          kamma arising from silabbatupadana only because it is
          too obvious to need allusion. It is said in the
          Kukkuravatika and other suttas that a man is reborn as
          an ox or a dog if he lives to the letter like those
          animals in deed, word or thought or he is reborn in hell
          or animal world if he accepts the false belief but does
          not practise it fully. Needless to say, the killing of
          animals as a sacrifice to gods that arises from this
          upadana leads to the lower worlds, and so do other
          misdeeds resulting from the upadana that is bound up
          with certain forms of worship, rites and ceremonies.

          In short, every belief in the efficacy of a practice as
          an antidote to evil is silabbatupadana. According to the
          commentaries on Visuddhimagga it is silabbatupadana even
          to rely entirely on conventional morality and mundane
          jhana as the way to liberation. The arupa jhanas
          attained by Alara and Udaka originated in this upadana
          and so do the deeds of many people that are based on
          faith in God. All these upadanas leads to rebirth and
          suffering.

          Attavadupadana - Attachment To Ego-Belief

          The last upadana (attavadupadana) is attachment to
          ego-belief. It is the strong conviction about the ego
          entity, the firm belief that the ego exists permanently,
          that it is the agent of every deed, speech and thought.

          Few people are free from this upadana. The average man
          believes that it is "I" who sees, hears, moves, etc.
          This illusion of ego-entity is the mainspring of
          self-love and concern about the welfare of one's self.
          The universality and omnipotence of self-love are
          underscored in Queen Mallika's reply to king Kosala.

          Mallika was originally the daughter of a flower vendor.
          One day she met the Buddha on the way and offered her
          food. After eating the food, the Lord told Ananda that
          the girl would become the queen of king Kosala. On that
          very day, king Kosala who was defeated in the battle,
          fled on horseback. Utterly exhausted and forlorn, the
          king rested in the flower-garden where he was tenderly
          attended on by Mallika. Being much pleased, the king
          took her to the palace and made her his chief queen. The
          Buddha's prophecy came true because of her recent good
          kamma and her good deed in the past existence.

          But Mallika was not as good looking as other lesser
          queens. Moreover, as a woman born of a poor family, she
          felt ill at ease among the courtiers. So in order to
          cheer her the king one day asked her whom she loved
          most. The answer which he expected was "Your Majesty, I
          love you most." He would then tell her that he too,
          loved her more than anyone else and this demonstration
          of his love would, so he thought, increase their
          intimacy and make her more at home in the palace.

          Nevertheless, as an intelligent woman who had the
          courage of conviction, Mallika replied frankly that
          there was no one whom she loved more than herself. She
          asked the king whom he loved most. The king had to admit
          that he too loved himself more than anyone else. He
          reported this dialogue to the Buddha. Then the Lord
          said, "There is no one in this world who loves another
          person more than himself. Everyone loves himself or
          herself most. So everyone should have sympathy and avoid
          ill-treating another person."

          In this saying of the Buddha, the word "self" or in
          Pali, atta, does not mean the atta or atman of the
          ego-belief. It refers only to self in its conventional
          sense or the self that a man speaks of to distinguish
          his own person from other living beings. But the
          ego-belief is also a source of self-love. The more
          powerful the belief is, the greater is the love of
          oneself.

          We do not love anyone more than our own selves. One
          loves one's wife or husband or child only as a helpmate,
          an attendant or a support. Marital or parental love is
          no more real than love of precious jewellery. So if a
          person says that his love of someone is greater than his
          love of himself, his words must be taken with a large
          grain of salt. In cases of life-and-death crisis, even a
          mother will not care for her child.

          Once a woman travelling with a caravan across the desert
          was left behind with her child as she was asleep when
          the caravan departed. As the sun rose higher in the sky,
          the sands became hotter and she had to place her basket
          and then her clothes under her feet. Still the heat
          became more unbearable till at last she was forced to
          put down her child under her body. Hence, the saying
          that even a mother will sacrifice her child for
          self-preservation.

          Because of this self-love based on ego-belief, man seeks
          his welfare or the welfare of his family by fair means
          or foul. He does not hesitate to do evil that serves his
          interests. But the belief in a permanent self also leads
          to good kammas. Some people are motivated by the belief
          and so they practise sila, dana, jhana, etc., for their
          welfare in afterlife. As a result they land in deva and
          Brahma worlds, but there they have to face again old
          age, death, and other evils of existence.

          In short, every effort to seek one's welfare in the
          present life or hereafter is rooted in ego-belief. Such
          kammic effort differs from that arising from kamupadana
          only in that its mainspring is obsession with personal
          identity whereas in the case of the latter the
          driving-force is craving for sensual pleasure.
          Nevertheless, for those who are strongly attached to
          ego-belief, egoism is closely bound up with sensual
          desire.

          As for the Ariyas who are wholly free from ego-belief,
          they are motivated only by kamupadana when they do good.
          Thus, the dana, sila and bhavana of Anathapindika,
          Visakha, Mahanama and others on the holy path may stem
          from their desire for better life in the human and
          deva-worlds or for the attainment of higher stages on
          the path.

          Story Of Ugga

          The anagami Ariyas do good presumably because of their
          desire for the bliss in material and immaterial spheres
          and arahatship. It is, of course, arahatship that can
          help remove sensual craving. The desire for arahatship
          as the motivation for doing good in the case of anagami
          yogi is evident in the story of Ugga.

          Ugga was a householder in Vesali city. The Buddha spoke
          of the eight wonderful attributes possessed by Ugga. In
          response to the inquiry by a monk about the Lord's
          reference to his attributes, Ugga said that he knew
          nothing about it but that he had eight distinctive
          qualities which were as follows.

          l. When he saw the Buddha for the first time, he
          concluded decisively that Gotama was the real,
          all-Enlightened Buddha.

          2. He attained anagami insight into the Four Noble
          Truths when he heard the Buddha's discourse. He observed
          the five precepts that included abstinence from sexual
          intercourse.

          3. He had four young wives. He told them about his
          sexual abstinence and permitted them to return to their
          parents' homes or to marry the men of their own choice.
          At the request of his eldest wife, he willingly
          performed the wedding ceremony before giving her away to
          the man she loved.

          4. He had resolved to spend all his wealth on giving
          alms to holy men of high moral character.

          5. He approached the bhikkhus respectfully.

          6. He heard the bhikkhus' sermon respectfully. He
          preached if the bhikkhus did not give a sermon.

          7. The devas came to him and said, "The doctrine of the
          Buddha is very good." He replied that the Dhamma was a
          good doctrine whether or not they said so about it. He
          did not feel conceited for his dialogue with the devas.

          8. He found himself free from the first five attachments
          that lead to the lower, sensual worlds.

          One day Ugga, the householder who possessed these eight
          qualities and had attained the anagami stage on the
          path, offered food and robes which he liked very much to
          the Buddha. The Lord commented on the nature of
          alms-giving as follows:

          "One who offers anything that pleases him or that he
          prizes highly gets something which he adores. One who
          offers to the Ariyan Noble who is of high moral
          character is doing an act of dana that it is hard for
          ordinary people to do and therefore he gets what he
          wants very much."

          Some years later, Ugga died and passed on to the
          Suddhavasa brahma-world. Before long he came and paid
          respect to the Buddha. He said that he had attained
          Arahatship that was indeed the object of his aspiration
          when he offered his much beloved food to the Lord in his
          previous existence. The Buddha again commented on the
          nature of kammic benefits of alms-giving - how the giver
          got what he prized most if he offered his much-prized
          object, how he attained a rare object if he offered rare
          things, how he attained to a much extolled stage if he
          offered much-extolled objects.

          The moral of this story is that one may even attain
          Arahatship, the summum bonum of the holy life as the
          kammic result of giving away one's much prized and
          precious objects. Ugga's alms-giving was motivated by
          the desire for Arahatship and it is this desire, or
          kamupadana that formed his driving force. Some people
          may object to making the term kamupadana synonymous with
          the desire for Arahatship and label it rather
          kusalachanda (wholesome desire) but then they will have
          to explain what kind of upadana it is that gives rise to
          good acts of Ariya such as dana, sila, etc.

          Vipassana Practice And Upadana

          The practice of vipassana, too, is to be attributed to
          kamupadana of a person who seeks permanent deliverance
          from evils of existence. Ordinary people have to
          contemplate to be free from the four upadanas while the
          Ariyas have to contemplate to overcome kamupadana. Thus,
          vipassana practice stands for the conquest of upadana.
          According to Visuddhimagga and another commentary, viz.,
          Sammohavinodani, avijja is indirectly the cause of good
          acts in that one has to do good for liberation from
          avijja and it is also said that bhavana or vipassana
          practice is one of the good acts in the sensual world
          which one has to do for such liberation.

          The question then arises as to whether vipassana
          practice can lead to rebirth. The commentaries on
          Anguttara Nikaya and Patthana point to such a
          possibility. According to the commentary on Anguttara
          Nikaya, the first three right views lead to good
          rebirth, the last two right views, viz., the view that
          is born of fruition on the path (phala-sammaditthi) and
          the view that results from vipassana practice tend to
          liberate the yogi from life-cycle (samsara). It says,
          however, on the authority of a learned thera (Culabhaya)
          that the yogi is subject to rebirth for seven times
          before he attains Arahatship. According to Patthana,
          contemplation of appamana (conditions of existence)
          leads to rebirth in sensual sphere, and the commentary
          defines appamana-cetana as maturity (gotrabhu cetana).
          Hence, it is reasonable to assume that vipassana
          practice can give rise to rebirth before Arahatship is
          won.

          But vipassana can ensure freedom from samsara through
          insight into anicca, dukkha and anatta of all
          sense-objects - an insight that keeps off the defilement
          of craving for them. This non-arising of craving means
          non-arising of kamma and rebirth. Thus, vipassana
          insight helps to offset kamma and its samsaric
          consequences by tadangapahana (overcoming by opposite).

          Moreover, through inductive generalization, the yogi
          realizes the anicca, dukkha and anatta of other
          phenomena that he has contemplated. Thus, he keeps off
          the defilements and their kammic potentials by
          repression (vikkhambhana pahana). Then, there follows
          the Ariyan insight on the path that helps to root out
          the defilements. The emergence of this insight may be
          likened to the signing of an official letter by the head
          of a government department. The act of the
          officer-in-charge is, in fact, to give the finishing
          touch to the lot of work done by his subordinates. We
          cannot ignore the major contribution of vipassana
          practice in the pursuit of spiritual enlightenment any
          more than we can ignore the work of office staff or the
          cumulative effect of repeated use of a saw that makes it
          finally possible for the woodcutter to exterminate the
          tree once and forever. As the sub-commentary on
          Visuddhimagga says:

          "Transcendent insight on the path helps to stamp out,
          root and branch only the defilements which the yogi has
          done his utmost to overcome through mundane vipassana
          insight."

          Those who do not contemplate, labour under the illusion
          of bliss and ego-entity. The illusion leads to craving,
          kammic efforts, rebirth and all the sufferings that are
          inherent in life-cycle.

          Life-Cycle And Three Time Dimensions

          The doctrine of Paticcasamuppada describes twelve causes
          and effects viz., (1) ignorance, (2) kamma formations,
          (3) consciousness, (4) mind and body, (5) six senses,
          (6) sense-contact, (7) feeling, (8) craving, (9)
          clinging, (10) becoming (bhava), (11) birth (jati), (12)
          old age and death.

          According to the doctrine, ignorance and craving are the
          two main sources of suffering. There are two
          life-cycles, the anterior life-cycle and the posterior
          life-cycle. The anterior life-cycle begins with
          ignorance as its main source and ends with feeling,
          while the posterior life-cycle begins with craving and
          ends with death. In the former life-cycle, ignorance
          (avijja) and kamma formations (sankhara) in the past
          life leads to rebirth, while in the latter life-cycle,
          craving (tanha) and clinging (upadana) cause rebirth in
          future. The two life-cycles show how a man's lifetimes
          are linked with one another through cause and effect.

          Again, if the doctrine of dependent origination is to be
          described on time-scale, avijja and sankhara are two
          links in the past life, the links from vinnana to
          kammabhava concern the present life, while birth, old
          age and death are the links that future has in store for
          us. Thus, the doctrine refers to three time dimensions.

          Five Causes In The Past

          The doctrine describes the past cause only in terms of
          avijja and sankhara but in point of fact avijja is
          invariably followed by tanha and upadana and sankhara
          too always lead to kammabhava. So Patisambhidamagga
          comments on the doctrine as follows.

          "Avijja is ignorance that dominates us while doing a
          kammic deed. Sankhara means collection and exertion of
          effort. Tanha is the craving for the results of an
          action in the present life and hereafter. Upadana is
          obsession with action and its result. Kammabhava is
          volition. These five factors in the past constitute the
          cause of present rebirth."

          Thus, we have to consider all these five links viz.,
          avijja, tanha, upadana, sankhara and kammabhava if we
          are to describe the past cause fully. Of these, avijja,
          tanha and upadana are labelled kilesavatta (cycle or
          round of defilements). Sankhara and kammabhava are
          called kammavatta (cycle of actions). The commentary
          makes a distinction between sankhara and kammabhava,
          describing the prior effort, planning, etc., preparatory
          to an act as sankhara and the volition at the moment of
          doing the act as kammabhava. Thus, seeking money, buying
          things, etc., prior to an act of dana comprise sankhara
          while the state of consciousness at the time of offering
          is kammabhava. Preliminary activities leading to an act
          of murder are sankhara while cetana or volition at the
          time of killing is kammabhava.

          Distinction Between Sankhara And Kammabhava

          The other kind of distinction between sankhara and
          kammabhava is based on impulse-moments. It is said that
          an act of murder or alms-giving involves seven
          impulse-moments. The first six impulse-moments are
          called sankhara while the last is termed kammabhava.

          The third way of making the distinction is to describe
          volition (cetana) as kammabhava and other mental states
          associated with volition as sankhara.

          The last method of classification is helpful when we
          speak of good deeds in rupa and arupa spheres. All the
          three methods apply in the case of good or bad acts in
          sensual world, but the first method is most illuminating
          for those who are not well informed.

          Alternatively, Visuddhimagga attributes rebirth to
          flash-backs, visions and hallucinations that hold a
          dying person's attention at the last moment of his life.
          So according to this commentary, kammabhava may be
          defined as the volition (cetana) that motivated his good
          or bad acts in the past and the sankhara as the mental
          state conditioned by his death-bed experiences.

          Present Effect Due To Past Cause

          Thus, owing to the rounds of defilements and kamma
          comprising the five causes in the past, there arises
          rebirth-consciousness together with mind-body, six
          bases, impressions and feeling. These five effects are
          collectively called vipaka vatta (round of effects).
          Because of their ignorance, common people have the
          illusion of pleasantness about every sense-object and
          mind-object. They develop craving, thereby starting
          again the vicious cycle of causes and effects that
          represent their rounds of suffering.

          Consciousness, the six sense bases, etc., arise as the
          kammic result of past kammas. It is a matter of
          cause-and-effect relationship just like all other
          phenomena. This leaves no room for ego, God or Prime
          Mover. The only difference is the moral law governing
          this relationship, the nature of feeling, whether
          pleasant or unpleasant, being dependent on the good or
          bad sankhara in the past. In reality there is no person
          who has pleasant or unpleasant feeling nor any being who
          causes him to have such an experience. Life is only the
          continuum of consciousness, impression, etc., as
          conditioned by five factors, viz., ignorance, craving,
          etc.

          Knowledge For Vipassana Practice

          Those who have a smattering of Paticcasamuppada or
          Abhidhamma say that it is impossible to practise
          meditation without a knowledge of these teachings. But,
          in fact the yogi who practises under the guidance of a
          learned teacher need not bother about higher Buddhist
          philosophy for he can follow the teacher's instructions
          if he knows only that life is a mental and physical
          process characterized by impermanence, suffering and
          insubstantiality. The adequacy of this simple knowledge
          to meet the intellectual need of the yogi who is bent on
          Arahatship is borne out by the Buddha in
          Culatanha-sankhaya sutta. There the Lord goes on to talk
          about vipassana practice. In the sutta, the yogi's
          understanding of nama-rupa is termed "abhijanati" which,
          says the commentary, means full comprehension and refers
          to nama-rupa paricchedanana and paccayapariggahanana.

          Through contemplation, the yogi knows all phenomena
          analytically as anicca, dukkha and anatta (parijanati).
          Here, the Pali terms refer to sammasananana and other
          vipassana insights.

          As regards Paticcasamuppada, a knowledge of the
          conditionality and cause-effect relationship in life
          that rules out a being ego or self is sufficient. It is
          not necessary to know the twelve links or the twenty
          main points of the doctrine thoroughly. If the practice
          of vipassana presupposes such a comprehensive knowledge,
          it would be unthinkable for a man of low intelligence
          like, say, thera Culapanna. The thera's memory was so
          poor that he could not remember a few gathas that he had
          learnt for four months. Nevertheless, he attained
          Arahatship in a few hours when he practised
          contemplation as instructed by the Buddha.

          Another laywoman, Matikamata by name, attained the third
          stage (anagami) on the holy path in advance of some
          bhikkhus who were her meditation teachers. She did not
          know much about Abhidhamma and Paticcasamuppada. There
          were many other yogis like this woman and Culapanna
          thera. So it is possible for a yogi to attain the holy
          path if he contemplates even though he may not have
          thoroughly learnt the higher teachings of the Buddha.

          Not to know the real nature of pleasant or unpleasant
          feeling is avijja (ignorance). It is tanha to like a
          sense-object and it is upadana to have craving for it.
          To seek the object of one's desire, to do good or evil
          for one's happiness or welfare in the present life or
          hereafter means sankhara and kammabhava. These five
          factors are the present causes and they give rise to
          rebirth after death. The doctrine of Paticcasamuppada
          mentions only three causes, viz., vedana, tanha and
          upadana but in reality these three factors imply two
          other causes, viz., avijja and sankhara since these two
          are the mainsprings of tanha and kammabhava
          respectively. So Patisambhidamagga describes all these
          five factors as causes of rebirth in future.

          Removing The Present Causes

          Every good or evil act means the complete conjunction of
          these five present causes and occasions for such a
          conjunction in a single lifetime may number by
          thousands. Under certain circumstances these causes may
          lead to rebirth after death or two or three rebirths
          successively. Every existence is bound up with old age,
          grief, death, etc., and if we wish to avoid these
          sufferings, we will have to remove the present causes.

          To this end we should note all physical phenomena,
          "seeing", "hearing", etc., at the moment of their
          arising. With the development of concentration, we note
          their instant passing away and become aware of their
          impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and unreliability. This
          awareness helps us to overcome ignorance and illusion
          that fuel craving, attachment and kammic effort: we thus
          keep the five present causes inoperative and inactive,
          thereby forestalling rebirth and consequent suffering.

          This method of removing the causes is labelled
          //tadangapahana// - overcoming some defilements through
          contemplation. By this method, the yogi attains
          //tadanganibbuti// - partial extinction of defilements
          through contemplation. Later on, there arises the
          insight on the Ariyan path which means the extinction of
          all sankhara and the realization of Nibbana
          (//samucchedapahana//).

          The defilements and kammas are then done away with, once
          and forever. The yogis who attain sotapatti stage
          overcome the defilements and kammas that lead to the
          lower worlds, and those that may cause good rebirth for
          more than seven lifetimes, the yogis at the sakadagami
          stage overcome those that may cause more than two
          rebirths while the yogis at the anagami stage remove
          those that lead to rebirth in sensual worlds. Finally,
          the yogi who attains arahatta stage eradicates the
          remaining defilements and kamma. In other words, he
          becomes an Arahat, the Noble one who is worthy of honour
          because he is wholly free from defilements.

          Arahat's Outlook On Life

          The arahat has no illusion about the nature of
          sense-objects. He is aware of their unwholesomeness and
          this means he realizes the truth of dukkha because he is
          free from ignorance (avijja). So he has no craving for
          anything. Inevitably, he has to fill the biological
          needs of his physical body such as eating, sleeping,
          etc., but he regards them as conditioned (sankhara)
          dukkha and finds nothing that is pleasant to him.

          The question arises as to whether he should long for
          speedy death to end such suffering. But the desire for
          early death or dissolution of the physical body too is a
          destructive desire and the Arahat is free from it. So
          there is an Arahat's saying in the Theragatha that he
          has neither the wish to die nor the wish to live.

          The Arahat does not wish to live a long life for life
          means largely the burden of suffering inherent in
          khandha. Although the burden of khandha needs constant
          care and attention, it is not in the least reliable. To
          many middle-aged or old people, life offers little more
          than frustration, disappointment and bitterness. Living
          conditions go from bad to worse, physical health
          declines and there is nothing but complete
          disintegration and death that await us. Yet, because of
          ignorance and attachment many people take delight in
          existence. On the other hand, the Arahat is
          disillusioned and he finds life dreary and monotonous.
          Hence, his distaste for life.

          But the Arahat does not prefer death either. For
          death-wish is an aggressive instinct which he has also
          conquered. What he wants is to attain Nibbana, a longing
          that is somewhat analogous to that of a worker who
          wishes to get his daily or monthly wage.

          The worker does not like to face hardship and privations
          for he has to work inevitably just to make his living
          but he does not want to lose his job either. He wants
          only money and looks forward to pay-day. Likewise, the
          Arahat waits for the moment when he should attain
          Nibbana without anything left of his body-mind complex.
          So when they think of their life-span, the Arahats
          wonder how long they will have to bear the burden of
          nama-rupa khandha. Because of his disillusionment, the
          Arahat's life-stream is completely cut off after
          Nibbana, hence it is called //anupadisesanibbana//.

          Not Annihilation But Extinction Of Suffering

          Those who believe in ego or soul deprecate Nibbana as
          eternal death of a living being. In reality, it is the
          total extinction of suffering that results from the
          non-recurrence of psycho-physical phenomena together
          with their causes viz., kamma and defilements. So the
          Buddha points out the cessation of upadana arising from
          the complete cessation of craving, the process of
          becoming (bhava) ceasing to arise due to cessation of
          upadana and so on. With the non-arising of rebirth,
          there is the complete cessation of old age, death and
          other kinds of suffering.

          Here, the popular view is that birth, old age and death
          are evils that afflict living beings but, in point of
          fact, these evils characterize only the psycho-physical
          process and have nothing to do with a living entity.
          Since there is no ego or soul, it makes no sense to
          speak of the annihilation of a living being with the
          cessation of rebirth and suffering.

          So those who regard Nibbana as annihilation are not free
          from the illusion of ego-entity. To the intelligent
          Buddhist, Nibbana means only cessation of suffering.
          This is evident in the story of bhikkhu Yamaka in the
          time of the Buddha.

          Story Of Yamaka

          Yamaka believed that the Arahat was annihilated after
          his death. He clung to his view although other bhikkhus
          pointed out its falsity. Then, Sariputta summoned him.
          Questioned by the elder thera, Yamaka admitted that all
          the five khandhas are impermanent and suffering, that it
          would be a mistake to regard them as one's possession or
          self. Sariputta told him to see the five khandhas as
          they really are. He would then become disillusioned,
          detached and liberated.

          While hearing the sermon, Yamaka attained the sotapanna
          stage. He was now free from false beliefs. Sariputta
          then questioned him again. In response to the thera's
          questions, Yamaka said that he did not identify the
          Arahat with the physical body, the perception, the
          feeling, conformations (sankhara) or the consciousness.
          Nor did he believe that the Arahat existed elsewhere
          without the rupa, vedana or any other khandha.
          Therefore, since the Arahat or a living entity is not to
          be found in the five khandhas even before death, it
          makes no sense to speak of the Arahat's annihilation
          after his parinibbana.

          Yamaka confessed his mistaken view. He was now free from
          it and he knew what to say about the destiny of the
          Arahat. If someone were to ask him, "What happens when
          the Arahat passes away?", he would answer, "The death of
          the Arahat means the complete cessation of suffering
          inherent in the impermanent five khandhas."

          This statement about the Arahat was confirmed by
          Sariputta. The thera likened the khandhas to the
          murderer who poses as a friend and said that identifying
          the khandhas with atta is like welcoming the murderer,
          etc.

          Here, the thera Yamaka at first believed that the Arahat
          was annihilated after death, that there was nothing
          left. This belief presupposes the illusion of ego-entity
          and so the annihilation view of Nibbana is called
          ucchedaditthi, the view that Nibbana means the negation
          of atta after death. When he realized the truth and
          attained sotapanna, Yamaka said that the death of the
          Arahat means the complete extinction of suffering
          inherent in the impermanent five khandhas.

          To sum up the way to the cessation of suffering, failure
          to note seeing, hearing and other psycho-physical
          phenomena leads to the arising of avijja, tanha,
          upadana, kamma, and sankhara that in turn cause birth,
          old age and death in future. Mindfulness of all
          phenomena forestalls the five present causes viz.,
          avijja, etc., and the five consequences that involve
          suffering.

          Bhikkhuni Vajira On The Nature Of Khandhas

          Moreover, it is the extinction of suffering that is
          underscored in the famous saying of bhikkhuni Vajira.
          While she was sitting under a tree near Jetavana
          monastery, Mara appeared and in order to scare and
          discomfit her, asked her,"Hey, bhikkhuni! Who created a
          living being? Where is the creator? How did a living
          being originate and how would he come to an end?"

          Bhikkhuni Vajira replied, "O, Mara! What do you think is
          a living being? Is not your belief in a living being an
          illusion? What you regard as a living being is nothing
          but a heap of sankhara. No being is to be found in this
          heap, a living being (sattava) is merely a term for the
          collection of five khandhas viz., rupa, vedana, etc.,
          just as "chariot" is the term for the combination of
          wheel, axle, etc.; there is no being but only the group
          of five khandhas: That cause suffering - in fact, it is
          only suffering (dukkha) that arises, exists and ends.
          There is no arising and extinction of anything other
          than dukkha."

          Therefore, a living being is to be understood only in
          the popular acceptation of the term. It does not exist
          in the absolute sense; there is only the psycho-physical
          process which comprises ignorance, craving, attachment,
          kamma and kammic effort as causes and consciousness,
          body-mind, sense bases, impression and feeling as
          effects. These effects in turn become causes that give
          rise to rebirth and suffering.

          Four Layers, Three Links And Twenty Factors

          Paticcasamuppada refers to four groups of factors
          involved in the chain of causation viz., the first group
          of causes in the past, the second group of effects in
          the present life, the third group of causes in the
          present and the last group of effects in the future. The
          groups are labelled //sangaha// or //sankhepa// in Pali.
          They may also be translated as layers.

          There are three links for the four layers - the link
          between the past and the present involving sankhara as
          cause and vinnana as effect, the link between the
          present effect and present cause with vedana and tanha
          as cause and effect, and the third link between present
          cause and future with bhava as cause and jati (birth) as
          effect.

          Then, there are twenty factors (akara) involved in the
          psycho-physical process viz., five causes in the past,
          five effects in the present, five causes in the present
          and five effects in the future.

          Three Cycles

          Again the doctrine of Paticcasamuppada deals with three
          cycles or rounds (vattas) viz., the cycles of
          defilements, kamma and fruits. The first cycle comprises
          ignorance, desire and attachment (upadana), the second
          (kamma cycle) comprises kammic effort and kammic
          existence (bhava), and the third vipaka cycle involves
          consciousness, mind-body, sense bases, impression and
          feeling.

          The third vipaka cycle again leads to the cycle of
          defilement, the cycle of defilement again gives rise to
          kamma cycle and so on, each of the three cycles
          occurring one after another ceaselessly in a vicious
          circle. The three cycles form the samsaric round of
          suffering. Samsara means continuum of nama-rupa
          (psycho-physical) process occurring in terms of
          cause-effect relationship.

          In order to liberate ourselves from the samsaric cycle
          of suffering, we do good deeds. We become familiar with
          the Buddha's teaching about the Four Noble Truths. We
          practise contemplation at the moment of seeing, hearing,
          etc. We realize the ceaseless arising and dissolution of
          psycho-physical phenomena. This vipassana insight
          forestalls illusion and frees us from craving and
          attachment that leads to rebirth and suffering.

          Visuddhimagga describes the contribution of kamma to the
          cycle of defilement. A certain yogi sees how mind-body
          complex is born of kammic cycle and vipaka (kammic
          fruits) cycle. He realizes that there are only kamma and
          its fruits: As a result of kamma in the past, there
          arise nama-rupa in the present life; nama-rupa is the
          cause of present kamma; it gives rise to kammic deeds in
          present life. These kammic deeds lead to rebirth. In
          this way there is the arising (becoming) of nama-rupa
          (being) without cessation.

          Here, the arising or becoming of nama-rupa means the
          arising of phenomena from the senses e.g. seeing,
          hearing, etc. These lead to defilement, kamma, and
          rebirth successively. Thus, the nama-rupa process is
          conditioned by the cycle of kamma and its fruit.
          According to Visuddhimagga, this insight-knowledge means
          paccayapariggahanana and kankhavitarana visuddhi (Purity
          of Escape from all Doubt).

          Four Aspects Of Paticcasamuppada

          There are four aspects of the doctrine of
          Paticcasamuppada that we should bear in mind. The first
          is the individual character of the psycho-physical
          process that comprises the three successive existences.
          Although the doctrine stresses the conditionality of all
          phenomena, it is a mistake to believe that avijja, tanha
          and other causes concern one person, while vinnana,
          nama-rupa and other causes concern one person, and while
          vinnana, nama-rupa and other effects concern another
          person for this belief implies the total extinction of a
          living being after death, the annihilation - view which
          Buddhism rejects. In reality, the nama-rupa process is
          analogous to, say, the evolution of a mango tree. The
          mango seed becomes a seedling, the seedling turns into a
          young plant and the plant grows into a tree. Here the
          seed, the young plant and the tree form a continuous,
          unbroken line of cause and effect relationship so that
          strictly speaking, it is impossible to distinguish
          between the tree and the plant.

          Likewise, avijja, sankhara, vinnana, etc., occur in
          unbroken succession in terms of cause and effect and so
          it is reasonable to speak of a particular person
          involved in the process. It was Devadatta, for example,
          who committed schism and it is Devadatta who is now
          suffering in hell. The merchant Anathapindika did good
          deeds and it was he himself who landed in the deva-world
          after his death.

          The False View Of Sati

          This identification of the doer of kammic deed with the
          bearer of its fruit makes it possible for us to avoid
          the annihilation-view. On the other hand, some people
          believe in the transmigration of a living being as a
          whole from one life to another. This mistaken view
          called sassataditthi (eternity-belief) was held by
          bhikkhu Sati in the time of the Buddha.

          It was the Jatakas that led bhikkhu Sati to this view.
          He learnt how the Buddha identified himself with the
          leading characters in these birth stories. So he
          reasoned thus: the physical body of the bodhisatta
          disintegrated after his death and there was nothing of
          it that passed on to his last existence. It was only the
          consciousness that survived physical dissolution and
          that formed the hard core of the bodhisatta's
          personality in each of his existence. The same may be
          said of every other living being. Unlike the physical
          body, consciousness is not subject to disintegration. It
          passes on from one body to another and exists forever.

          But the Jatakas underscore only the continuity of the
          cause and effect relationship in terms or the doer of
          kamma and the bearer of kammic fruit. They do not imply
          the transfer of vinnana or any other attribute intact
          from one life to another. Everything passes away but
          because of the causal connection, we have to assume that
          the hero of a Jataka story finally became Prince
          Siddhattha. So after questioning Sati, the Buddha says
          that vinnana is conditioned, that it cannot arise in the
          absence of its relevant cause.

          The Buddha cites the simile of a fire which is
          designated according to its origin. The fire that
          originates with wood is called wood-fire, that which
          starts with grass is called grass-fire and so on.
          Likewise, consciousness is conditioned by something and
          it is labelled according to that which conditions it.
          Thus, the consciousness that arises from eye and visual
          form is called visual consciousness (cakkhu-vinnana),
          that which stems from ear and sound is called auditory
          consciousness (sota-vinnana) and so forth. In short, the
          consciousness is specified according to the sense-object
          and the sense-organ which together give rise to it. When
          the cause of a fire changes so does its designation. A
          grass-fire becomes a bush-fire when the fire spreads to
          the bush. In the same way, consciousness changes its
          label according to the sense-object and the sense-organ
          on which it is dependent. In the case of the same
          sense-object and the same sense-organ, too, it is the
          new consciousness that occurs at every moment in the
          mental process. Thus, to realize the truth about mental
          process is to be free from annihilation-belief whereas a
          false view of it leads to eternity-belief.

          Distinctive Character Of Each Phenomenon

          Another aspect of the doctrine is the distinction
          between the different phenomena constituting the chain
          of causation. Thus avijja is a distinct phenomenon that
          conditions sankhara; sankhara is another different
          phenomenon that leads to rebirth and so on. To
          differentiate these phenomena is to realize their
          cause-and-effect relationship and this realization makes
          us free from eternity-belief. It helps us to do away
          with the illusion of a permanent, unchanging self that
          survives death and passes on to another existence.

          In fact the eternity-belief or the annihilation-belief
          stems from the fact that people tend to over-emphasize
          either the connection between the mental states in two
          successive lives or the distinction between them. If we
          unintelligently identify ourselves with the nama-rupa in
          the present life and that in the previous life, we will
          be inclined to the belief in immortality. On the other
          hand, if we overstress the dichotomy of the nama-rupas,
          we are likely to fall into the trap of
          annihilation-view. The right attitude is to recognize
          the unbroken stream of nama-rupa that flows from one
          life to another in terms of cause and effect. This point
          of view gives us the impression of the individual
          character of nama-rupa and, as such, it clarifies the
          working out of kamma. It does not, however, imply the
          transfer of old nama-rupa or ego. It assumes the
          cessation of old nama-rupa and the arising of new
          nama-rupa in the present life on the basis of past
          kamma.

          This view is crucial in vipassana practice. To the yogi
          who contemplates nama-rupa at every moment of their
          arising, these two aspects of the doctrine are apparent.
          He becomes aware of the stream of cause and effect
          comprising avijja, tanha, upadana and so forth. He is
          aware of the continuity, and the uninterrupted flow of
          nama-rupa process and, therefore, he rejects the
          annihilation view completely.

          Furthermore, being aware of the new phenomenon that
          arises whenever he contemplates, he discriminates
          between the sense-object and his consciousness.
          Contemplation brings to light feeling, craving,
          clinging, effort, consciousness, etc., as distinct
          phases of the mental process. And because he is well
          aware of the arising of new phenomena, he frees himself
          from eternity-belief.

          Absence Of Effort (Avyapara)

          Another aspect of Paticcasamuppada is the absence of
          effort (avyapara). Avijja causes sankhara without
          striving and sankhara does not strive to create rebirth.
          Knowledge of this fact means insight into the
          non-existence of any agent or being (karaka-puggala) who
          hears, sees, etc., and as such it makes us free from
          ego-belief. But as Visuddhimagga says, it lends itself
          to misinterpretation and turns one into a moral sceptic
          who accepts determinism and denies moral freedom.

          The non-volitional nature of conditioned psycho-physical
          phenomena is apparent to the yogi who contemplates their
          ceaseless arising and dissolution for he realizes
          clearly that since nama-rupa is conditioned, his mind
          and body do not always act according to his desire.

          Relevancy Of Cause To Effect

          The last aspect of Paticcasamuppada is the one-to-one
          correspondence between cause and effect (evam dhammata).
          Every cause leads only to the relevant effect; it has
          nothing to do with the irrelevant effect. In other
          words, every cause is the sufficient and necessary
          condition for the corresponding effect. This fact leaves
          no room for belief in chance or moral impotency
          (akiriyaditthi) but, as Visuddhimagga says, for those
          who misunderstand it, it provides the basis for rigid
          determinism (niyatavada). As for the contemplating yogi,
          he clearly sees the relevancy of each effect to its
          cause and so he has no doubt about their one-to-one
          correspondence and the reality of moral freedom.

          I have dwelt at length on noteworthy facts about
          Paticcasamuppada. These will be clear to the yogis who
          consider them on the basis of their experience but as
          the doctrine is profound, they will not be able to grasp
          some facts that are beyond their intellectual level. It
          is of course only the omniscient Buddha who knew
          everything thoroughly. The yogi should make it a point
          to know fully as far as possible within the scope of his
          intellect. To this end, he should learn from the
          discourses of bhikkhus, reflect over what he has learnt
          and enrich his understanding through the practice of
          mindfulness.

          Of the three methods of study, the third method
          (bhavanamaya) is the most important for the yogi who
          gains insight-knowledge by this method, attains the holy
          path and is liberated from the dangers of the lower
          worlds.

          Conclusion

          Now we will conclude the discourse on Paticcasamuppada
          with a commentary on Arahant, the chief attribute of the
          Buddha.

          The formula about the dependent origination consists of
          twelve links beginning with ignorance and ending in
          death. It has ignorance and craving as two root-causes
          and two life-cycles. The anterior cycle begins with
          ignorance and ends in feeling, while the posterior cycle
          begins with craving and ends in death and old age. Since
          anxiety, grief and the like do not occur in the Brahma
          world, they do not necessarily stem from birth (jati)
          and, as such, are not counted among the links of the
          dependent origination.

          Furthermore, the anterior life-cycle explicitly shows
          only avijja and sankhara; but avijja implies
          tanha-upadana and sankhara implies kammabhava. So all
          these five links form the past causes, while vinnana,
          nama-rupa, ayatana, phassa and vedana form the present
          effects. These vinnana, etc., are the wholesome or
          unwholesome kammic fruits that are clearly experienced
          at the moment of seeing, etc. The posterior life-cycle
          directly concerns tanha, upadana and kammabhava but
          these three causes imply avijja and sankhara, and so as
          in the past avijja, tanha, upadana, sankhara and
          kammabhava represent the five present causes that lead
          to birth, old age and death in future. These effects are
          the same as those of vinnana, nama-rupa, etc. Thus, like
          the present effects, the future effects are also five in
          number.

          So there are altogether four groups of layers of five
          past causes, five present effects, five present causes
          and five effects in the future. The layers represent
          three causal relations viz., the relation between the
          past causes and the present effects; the relation
          between the present effects and present causes; and the
          conditionality of phenomenal existence is evident in
          these layers or the twenty links of cause and effect
          which are termed //akara//. These links may be grouped
          in terms of vatta or cycles or rounds of defilements,
          viz., the cycle of defilements, the cycle of kamma and
          the cycle of kammic fruits which we have already
          explained before.

          Those who have done good kammas pass through human, deva
          or Brahma worlds while those who have done evil are
          doomed to rebirth in the lower worlds. Living beings
          confined to life-cycle (samsara) get the chance to do
          good only when they have a good teacher. A good teacher
          is hard to come by and so many people are largely prone
          to evil deeds and subject to their kammic effects in
          terms of suffering. It is then said that they are
          overtaken by Nemesis, that they have to pay for their
          round of kamma. Once established on the Ariyan path,
          they cannot land in hell but as for the cycle of kammic
          fruits, even the Buddhas and Arahats are not spared
          kammic retribution.

          Cutting Off The Cycle Of Defilements

          If we wish to end the threefold cycle, we will have to
          remove its cause viz., the cycle of defilements.
          Defilements originate with seeing, hearing, etc., and so
          we must practise mindfulness to prevent their arising
          when we see, hear, etc. The practice of concentration
          and mindfulness makes the yogi aware of the impermanence
          and insubstantiality of all phenomena. This means he has
          no more illusion and is free from the cycle of
          defilements, kammas and kammic fruits.

          Now, to sum up the way to the total conquest of the
          threefold cycle of defilement, kammas and kammic results
          with reference to the attributes of the Buddha.

          Arahan And The Attributes Of The Buddha

          The Buddha's special designation is Arahan and this word
          points to the following attributes of the Buddha.

          (1) The Buddha was free from defilements. So were the
          Arahats but they were not free from the habits that
          continued to dominate them even after the attainment of
          their spiritual goal. This is evident in the story of
          thera Pilindavaccha. Pilinda was an Arahat, beloved of
          the devas and extolled by the Buddha. Yet he was in the
          habit of addressing his fellow bhikkhus or laymen rather
          rudely. Some bhikkhus complained to the Buddha about the
          thera's rudeness. The Buddha attributed this unpleasant
          habit to his having spent several lifetimes in the
          Brahmin families but said that being an Arahat, the
          thera was pure and good at heart.

          As for the Buddha, from the time of his attainment of
          supreme enlightenment, he became free from all the
          habits or hangovers of defilements that were carried
          over from past lives. This distinctive mark of the
          Buddha's Arahatship should be borne in mind when we
          contemplate the Lord's attributes. The complete
          extinction of cycles means total liberation from the
          three cycles of defilements, kamma and kammic fruits.

          (2) The Buddha was called Arahan because of his conquest
          of defilements. People fear only the external enemy such
          as robbers, snakes, etc. They do not bother about the
          internal enemy, that is, defilements that are more
          terrible. In point of fact, they have to suffer because
          of their mind-body complex and defilements. The
          root-cause is the defilements that give rise to repeated
          rebirths and sufferings. The defilements are ten in
          number viz., craving, hatred, ignorance, pride,
          illusion, doubt, lassitude, restlessness, shamelessness
          and lack of conscience.

          (3) By virtue of his outstanding moral integrity, wisdom
          and enlightenment, the Buddha was worthy of reverence
          and offerings. People who revered or made offerings to
          the Buddha have their wishes fulfilled.

          (4) Since he had conquered the defilements completely,
          the Buddha was pure at heart whether in public or
          solitude. Many people play the hypocrite, posing as good
          men or women in public but doing evil when there is
          no-one to see or hear them. In reality, there is no
          place where one can do evil secretly. Even though the
          evil-doer is not seen by men and gods, he cannot help
          having qualms of conscience. His conscience is the most
          infallible witness to his misdeeds and it forms the
          basis for death-bed visions that point to unpleasant
          life that future has in store for him.

          As for the Buddha, having wholly conquered all the
          defilements, his mind was always pure and he had
          absolutely no desire or intention to do evil either
          publicly or secretly.

          (5) The Buddha had destroyed the spokes of the wheel
          with the sword of the Arahatship. Here, the wheel means
          the cycle of life as described in the doctrine of
          Paticcasamuppada and the sword means the
          insight-knowledge of the Arahat. The axle of the wheel
          represents avijja, the root-cause; the fringe of the
          wheel stands for old age and death, while the spokes
          stand for the middle links, viz., sankhara, etc. Just as
          the removal of spokes makes it impossible for the wheel
          to move, so also the destruction of the middle links in
          the chain of conditioned phenomena means the end of the
          cycle of life.

          Story Of Baka Brahma

          The first thing to do to end the life-cycle is to remove
          its root-cause viz., ignorance, for ignorance is
          invariably followed by sankhara, vinnana, etc., down to
          jaramarana (old age and death). This is true in the
          sensual worlds as well as in the material world of
          Brahmas.

          Once there was a great Brahma called Baka. He outlived
          many world-systems (kappa); indeed he lived so long that
          at last he forgot his previous existences and became
          convinced of his immortality without old age or death.
          The Buddha went to his abode to remove his illusion. The
          Brahma welcomed the Lord and bragged about his eternal
          life. The Buddha said that his ignorance was appalling
          in that he denied impermanence, old age and death. He
          revealed the good deeds that had led to the Brahma's
          longevity and it was this fabulous longevity that had
          made him oblivious of his previous lives and created the
          illusion of his immortality. On hearing this, Baka
          Brahma had second thoughts about his omnipotence. Still,
          he was conceited and in order to show his power, he
          tried to vanish out of sight of the Buddha and other
          Brahmas but it was in vain. Because of the power of the
          Lord, he remained visible.

          Then the Buddha uttered the following verse:

          Bhavevaham bhayam disva bhavan ja vibhavesinam bhavam
          nabhivadim kinci nandincana upadiyim:

          I do not extol any existence because I see danger in it.
          I have renounced the craving for existence because I am
          aware of its evil.

          Baka Brahma and other Brahmas had lived so long that
          they considered their existence and their abode eternal.
          Likewise, the evils of life escape the notice of those
          who have the blessings of a good life such as health,
          wealth, prestige, success and so forth. But life is
          subject to suffering on all its three planes: sensual
          plane, material plane and immaterial plane. A Brahma or
          a rishi on the material or immaterial planes of
          existence may live for aeons but they too have to die
          eventually.

          Sammasambuddha

          It is insight knowledge that leads to the destruction of
          ignorance which is the root-cause of suffering. For the
          Buddha, this means the attribute of sammasambuddha.
          Sammasambuddha is one who knows the Four Noble Truths
          rightly, thoroughly and independently. Here the twelve
          links of Paticcasamuppada may be differentiated in terms
          of the Four Noble Truths.

          Thus, old age and death together means the first truth
          of suffering and rebirth means the truth about the cause
          of suffering. The cessation of this cause and this
          effect means the truth about the cessation (nirodha)
          and, knowledge of this cessation means the truth about
          the path to it (magga).

          The same may be said of rebirth and kammic cause, kammic
          cause and clinging, clinging and craving, craving and
          feeling, feeling and contact, contact and six senses,
          the senses and nama-rupa, nama-rupa and consciousness,
          consciousness and sankhara, and sankhara and ignorance.
          In short, what immediately precedes a link is termed its
          cause (samudaya) and what immediately follows is called
          its effect (dukkha sacca). We can even make ignorance
          (avijja), the origin of life-cycle, synonymous with
          truth about suffering (dukkha sacca); if we regard it as
          an effect of the attachment (asava) viz., attachment to
          sensual pleasure, existence, belief and ignorance.

          Here, the identification of tanha with dukkha may not be
          acceptable to some people. But it is reasonable if we
          remember the fact that all nama-rupa including tanha
          means dukkha since it is subject to impermanence. The
          commentary does not describe avijja as dukkha, but we
          can say it is dukkha arising from asava (biases). There
          are four asavas that have their sources in sensual
          craving, attachment to life, false belief and ignorance.
          It is a matter of ignorance in the past again giving
          rise to ignorance in the present. Hence, the asavas may
          be regarded as the cause of avijja.

          So having realized the Four Noble Truths and attained
          Nibbana, through his own enlightenment, the Buddha
          earned the unique and glorious title of Sammasambuddha.
          He knew that all the phenomena covered by the doctrine
          of Paticcasamuppada are the real dukkha and the causes
          of dukkha. He was disenchanted, had no attachment and
          achieved liberation from all fetters. So according to
          Visuddhimagga, he was called Arahan because he managed
          to destroy completely all the supports of the wheel of
          life.

          The Fame Of The Buddha

          The fame of the Buddha pervaded the whole universe. It
          spread to all parts of the universe through the
          inhabitants of some realms who came to hear the Buddha's
          sermons or through the sermons which the Buddha himself
          gave in some realms or through the former disciples who
          had landed in some higher realms after hearing the
          sermons.

          We need not dwell on the first way in which the fame of
          the Buddha spread. As regards the other two ways, in the
          course of his long wanderings in samsara, the bodhisatta
          had been to all the realms except the five suddhavasa
          realms which are meant only for those who have attained
          anagami stage. The bodhisatta usually attains all the
          four stages on the path only in his last existence. So
          the Buddha had never been to suddhavasa realm before and
          on one occasion he paid a visit to it by means of his
          psychic powers. On arriving there, he received the
          homage of millions of brahmas, who told him about the
          former Buddhas and their landing in suddhavasa realm as
          the result of their attainment of anagami stage. Among
          these brahmas, there were also those who had practised
          the dhamma as disciples of Gotama Buddha.

          The Buddha visited all the five suddhavasa realms. It is
          easy to see how he became famous in the realms that were
          the abodes of his former disciples. But the question
          arises as to how his fame spread to the formless (arupa)
          realms. It was not possible for the formless brahmas to
          come to the Buddha or for the Buddha to go to them.
          Those who practised the Buddha-dhamma in the sensual or
          the material world, attaining the first three stages on
          the path and dying with arupa (formless) jhana might
          land in the formless worlds if they so desired. These
          noble ones were aware of the sublime attributes of the
          Buddha and the possibility of attaining new insights
          through the practice of mindfulness. So through
          mindfulness of all mental events, they finally became
          Arahats and passed away in vinnanancayatana realm or
          akincannayatana realm or the highest realm called
          Nevasannanasannayatana. In this way, the fame of the
          Buddha spread throughout the whole universe.

          The Four Noble Truths In Brief

          We have dealt in detail with the Buddha's knowledge of
          the Four Noble Truths vis-a-vis his attribute of
          Sammasambuddha. We will now repeat the four truths
          briefly. According to the scriptures, all the nama-rupa
          in the sensual, material and immaterial worlds,
          exclusive of tanha, constitute dukkha. This is the first
          truth. Tanha as the cause of dukkha is the second truth.
          Nibbana as the cessation of dukkha is the third truth,
          and the Ariyan path as the way to cessation is the
          fourth truth. These Four Noble Truths are realized
          experientially by the yogi through the practice of
          vipassana. From experience he knows that all that is
          arising and passing away mean dukkha, attachment to them
          is the cause, that cessation of both the dukkha and its
          cause is Nibbana, and that its attainment is the path.

          Sammasambuddha And Buddhahood

          Both of the two Pali terms viz., Buddha and
          Sammasambuddha mean omniscience or knowledge of all the
          dhammas. This raises the question of how to make a
          distinction between the two attributes connected by the
          two terms. By the attribute of sammasambuddha, we are to
          understand that the bodhisatta attained Buddhahood on
          the basis of independent reflection, and effort and the
          realization of the Four Noble Truths through insight on
          the path of Arahatship. Buddhahood means the thorough
          and exhaustive knowledge of all the conditioned and the
          unconditioned dhammas on the basis of the unique
          attributes possessed by the Buddha such as omniscience
          (sabbannutanana), etc.

          These unique attributes of the Buddha consist in
          knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, four kinds of
          analytical knowledge and six kinds of knowledge that are
          not to be found among disciples (asadharananana). The
          six asadharananana are: (1) knowledge of the different
          moral and spiritual levels of living beings, (2)
          knowledge of the desires, inclinations and latent
          tendencies (anusaya) of living beings, (3) the power to
          create super-miracles (yamakapatihariyanana), (4)
          infinite compassion for all living beings, (5)
          omniscience, and (6) knowledge without any hindrance or
          obstruction of anything which the Buddha wants to know
          and which he brings into the focus of his attention.

          Now a few words about the conditioned (sankhara) and
          unconditioned (asankhara) dhammas. The sankharas are the
          nama-rupa or the five aggregates of khandhas that arise
          owing to the harmonious combination of relevant factors.
          In other words, they are the phenomena conditioned by
          favourable circumstances. Thus, sound is produced when
          there is friction between two hard objects such as
          sticks or iron bars. Here sound is sankhara. As opposed
          to sankhara is asankhara which has nothing to do with
          causes. The only ultimate reality (paramattha) in the
          category of asankhara dhammas is Nibbana. Of the
          non-paramattha asankharas there are many kinds of names
          such as names of shapes, figures and so forth.

          The Buddha's sabbannutanana is so called because it
          encompasses the whole range of conditioned and
          unconditioned dhammas. It is also described in terms of
          the five neyyadhamma viz., the sankhara, the distinctive
          qualities of certain rupas (nipphanna), the conditioned
          characteristics of nama-rupa, Nibbana and names.

          The first two attributes of the Buddha forming the
          knowledge of the different spiritual levels,
          inclinations and latent tendencies of living beings are
          labelled Buddha-eye (Buddha-cakkhu). With this
          all-seeing eye, the Buddha chose the living beings who
          ought to be enlightened, and preached to them the
          appropriate dhamma at the appropriate moment.

          We conclude the discourse on the Paticcasamuppada with
          the commentary on the attributes of the Buddha (Arahan)
          because we wish to inspire the readers with faith in the
          Blessed One. We hope that they will find the source of
          inspiration too, in the Arahats who also possess the
          Arahan attribute. The Arahat is wholly free from
          defilements, he has destroyed the framework of
          life-cycle; there is no secret place where he will do
          evil and so he is worthy of honour. These are the
          qualities that make up his Arahan attribute although
          this attribute as possessed by the ordinary Arahat is
          below the superlative Arahan attribute of the Buddha.

          So you should try to overcome defilements through
          mindfulness of the nama-rupa processes that arise at the
          six sense-doors, destroy the supports of the wheel of
          life and keep your mind pure all the time in order that
          you may eventually become Arahats and earn the glorious
          title of Arahan.

          SUMMARY

          From the two root-causes referred to in the two noble
          truths there arise four layers, three cycles, three
          connections, twelve links, three time-dimensions, twenty
          phenomena and five nama-rupa processes. One who watches
          these present resultant processes effectively does not
          have craving that is rooted in feeling and so he will
          put an end to life-cycle completely.

          In other words, the yogi watches every psycho-physical
          event that occurs at the six senses clearly in terms of
          its impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and egolessness.

          Through such effective practice of mindfulness, the yogi
          gains insight into the nature of the sense-object such
          as sound, visual form, etc., and overcomes the
          attachment to it by the opposite (tadanga), that is, he
          overcomes it by opposing it with the knowledge that
          undercuts it. The cessation of attachment rules out the
          arising of the other phenomena e.g. clinging, process of
          becoming, rebirth, etc. After this cessation through
          vipassana insight, the yogi overcomes the latent
          attachment completely through destruction (samuccheda)
          when he attains the insight knowledge on the Ariyan
          path. At this moment the other phenomena e.g. clinging,
          etc., also become totally extinct.

          There is no teaching which says that with the extinction
          of feeling, craving too ceases to exist. This is no
          wonder for even the Arahats do not have any control over
          their feelings that arise from contact with the six
          senses.

          There are certain psycho-physical phenomena that have to
          be watched and noted as they really are i.e. in terms of
          anicca, dukkha and anatta if the yogi wants to remove
          the present causes such as tanha etc., the future
          results and end the cycle of suffering. These phenomena
          with their Pali terms are explained below.

          (1) Vinnana: consciousness, which is of six kinds viz.,
          eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness,
          nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness,
          body-consciousness and mind-consciousness.

          (2) Nama: mental factors (cetasikas) that arise together
          with consciousness. Rupa: the physical phenomena that
          arises together with that consciousness. Nama-rupa may
          be translated as mind and matter.

          (3) Salayatana: the six bases of mental activity, that
          is, the six internal bases comprising the consciousness
          and the five physical sense-organs viz., eye, ear, nose,
          tongue and body and the six external bases viz., visible
          object, sound, odour, sap or gustative object,
          body-impression and mind-object.

          (4) Phassa: contact or impression, which is of six kinds
          viz., visual impression, impression of hearing, of
          smelling, of tasting, bodily impression and mental
          impression.

          (5) Vedana: feelings which is of three kinds viz.,
          pleasant feeling, unpleasant feeling and indifferent
          feeling. We may also distinguish six kinds of feelings:
          feelings associated with seeing, hearing, smelling,
          tasting, body-impression and mental impression.

          1. Two root-causes:

          Ignorance (avijja) and craving (tanha).

          2. Two truths:

          Truth about the cause (craving) and truth about
          suffering (dukkha).

          3. Four layers:

          (1) The layer of the past cause - ignorance, kamma
          formations (sankhara), craving, clinging and becoming.

          (2) The layer of present result - consciousness,
          mind-body complex, six bases of mental activity,
          impression, feeling.

          (3) The layer of present cause - craving, clinging,
          kamma, becoming, ignorance, kamma formations (sankhara).

          (4) Future result - birth, old age, death,
          consciousness, etc.

          4. Three cycles:

          (1) The cycle of defilements - ignorance, craving,
          clinging.

          (2) The cycle of kamma - kamma formations (sankhara),
          kamma and becoming.

          (3) The cycle of kammic results - consciousness,
          mind-body complex, six bases of mental activity,
          impression, feeling, birth, old age and death.

          5. Three connections:

          (1) The connection between the past kamma formations
          (sankhara) as the past cause and consciousness as the
          present result.

          (2) The connection between feeling as the present result
          and craving as the present cause.

          (3) The connection between becoming as the present cause
          and birth as the future result.

          6. Twelve links:

          (1) ignorance
          (2) kamma formations
          (3) consciousness
          (4) mental and physical phenomena
          (5) six bases
          (6) impression
          (7) feeling
          (8) craving
          (9) clinging
          (10) becoming
          (11) rebirth
          (12) old age and death

          7. Three time-dimensions:

          (1) The infinite past - ignorance and kamma formations.

          (2) The infinite present - consciousness, mind-body
          complex, six bases, impression, feeling, craving,
          clinging, kamma-process.

          (3) The infinite future - rebirth, old age and death.

          8. Twenty elements:

          (1) Five elements of the causative process in the past
          existence.

          (2) Five elements of the resultant process in the
          present existence.

          (3) Five elements of the causative process in the
          present existence.

          (4) Five elements of the resultant process in the future
          existence.

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